018: To the Strongest - The End of the Wars of the Diadochi

Hi there, you're listening to The Hellenistic Age Podcast. Episode 18. To the Strongest. The End of the Wars of the Diodohor. To Demetrius I Polyarchates, things seemed like they could have been going better. Stuck on a ship in the middle of the Aegean Sea, Demetrius had fallen from his height of power just a few months prior. The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC had resulted in an alliance of anti-Antigonid kings attacking and successfully defeating Demetrius and his father Antigonus Monophthalmos, who died on the battlefield. The territory formerly held by the Antigonids, comprising much of Asia Minor and the Levant, was subsequently carved up by the victorious kings and added to their realms. Demetrius himself managed to escape the battlefield with a few thousand men, and though he held substantial power in the sea thanks to his possession of places like Tyre and Cyprus, he did not feel comfortable until he had reached the supposed political center of his kingdom's power, Athens. The Antigonids had cultivated good relations with the famed city for years, minus the controversies Demetrius had embroiled himself shortly before Ipsus, but once he would get there, things would get better, right? Well, not initially. See, Athens was aware of the Antigonid defeat and decided to intercept Demetrius' fleet before it even made port. They knew Demetrius' power was severely weakened, while the other kings, including King Cassander just a few hundred miles north in Macedon, were made stronger. Perhaps they thought that neutrality was probably their safest bet, throwing any loyalties they had away for the Antigonid cause without explicitly opposing it either. Anyways, when Demetrius was met with an Athenian envoy, they informed him that no kings were to be admitted into the city, by recent decree. This really wasn't the response Demetrius was looking for, but what was made even worse was that Didamea, his wife, and his 18-year-old son Antigonus, soon to be known as Antigonus Gonatas, were inside the city, along with a vast treasure hoard and numerous ships docked there for safekeeping. Demetrius flew off the handle, but at least he put it politely in a letter that he was disappointed at the turn of events, but asked for his family and for his ships back, which was granted. So it wasn't all bad, but Demetrius needed to recoup some of his prestige and some money to keep the loyalty of his troops if he was going to retake the throne. In 300 BC, Demetrius decided to take his army into Thrace and launched a series of incursions and raids into the territory of Lysimachus. Demetrius' confidence must have been restored a little, given how badly this affected Lysimachus, who had to massacre thousands of his own men who mutinied after Demetrius captured their baggage train. But the events that were to shake up the region weren't all bouts of violence. It was time for wedding bells, lots of them, because at this time, the successors were right back to conspiring against one another after their main adversary Antigonus had been eliminated at Ipsus. Probably the most successful of these matchmakers was Ptolemy, who had a particularly high level of fecundity with at least 10 children with various wives. He arranged an alliance between himself and Lysimachus by offering his daughter Arsinoe II, who would prove to be a gifted political figure in her own right. An offer was later extended to one of Cassander's sons, named Alexander, who would marry a Ptolemaic princess named Lysandra. In response to Ptolemy, negotiations were started between Demetrius and Seleucus. The lack of a navy and the growing isolation from the other kings led Seleucus to try and court Stratonice, Demetrius' daughter and Cassander's niece, providing a nice little opportunity for prospect of an alliance with a naval power like Demetrius, and the deal was sealed aboard a giant flagship of Demetrius' navy in 298 BC. As a gesture of goodwill towards his father-in-law, Seleucus also arranged a peace accord between Ptolemy and Demetrius, the latter being betrothed to a Ptolemaic princess aptly named Ptolemaeus. This arms race of marriage alliances was certainly a more productive way to keep the peace than the previous 20 years of nearly non-stop warfare, but it wasn't always that effective. Seleucus and Ptolemy were still butting heads over southern Syria, which Ptolemy had squat upon in the aftermath of Ipsus, directly threatening some of the most economically rich parts of Seleucus' realm. There was also the fact that Demetrius had decided to take the initiative and recapture Cilicia, which had been occupied by a relative of Cassander. Seleucus probably also felt a degree of regret for allowing Demetrius to regain much of his former status, because he would later unreasonably demand a dowry of the cities of Tyre and Sidon from Demetrius. Polyarchetes would not even bother to consider this, claiming that even if he lost 10,000 Ipsuses, he wouldn't pay to have Seleucus as his son-in-law. So, though fortune was fickle, it seemed to have cast a friendlier light on Demetrius. Cilicia would allow him to replenish his coffers and rebuild his fleet for his upcoming power plays, and for the moment he was secure. Things may have started at their worst, but things seemed to be getting better, and if only something as fortunate would happen for the Antigonid cause somewhere else. In the year 296, Macedon was in utter chaos. Despite perpetual fears of an invasion, Macedon was remarkably untouched by the wars of the successors since Cassander I took control in 315. Through an iron fist and a propensity for politically induced murder and brutality, Cassander continued the peace that Antipater, his father, had built in Alexander's time. In the year 297, Cassander would eventually succumb to illness and die, leaving the throne to his eldest son, Philip IV. Unfortunately for them, Philip II would also die from illness just a few months later. The remaining two teenage sons of Cassander, Alexander V and Antipater I, would instead serve as joint regents, and were already married to children of Ptolemy and Lysimachus, respectively. Knowing Macedonian politics, their mother, Thessalonicae, would act as a sort of guardian for the pair, lest they use any underhanded tactics against one another. Unfortunately, Thessalonicae seemed too obvious in her favoritism for Alexander, and Antipater decided to have his mother killed in 296. Thus, a civil war was sparked between the two brothers, splitting Macedon into the east and west, leaving it divided and vulnerable from outside invasion. This is the Macedon that Demetrius would approach in that same year. He had already been planning an invasion of Greece to re-establish dominance over the traitorous Athenians and the Peloponnese, and despite a near-death experience vis-à-vis a catapult bolt through his jaw and mouth, Demetrius had managed to reduce Athens to starvation through blockades, and fended off aid from Ptolemy. The city fell to him in 295, whereupon he changed its democracy to an oligarchy once again. He re-garrisoned it, but ultimately did not brutally sack it, as it was expected by the terrified Athenians. Once he cleaned up affairs there, he made a campaign to capture Sparta and the rest of Lacedaemonia, but before he could complete his task, he was brought news. Lysimachus and Ptolemy were attacking his territories in Asia Minor and Cyprus, but also, info was given about the fighting in Macedon. Demetrius was given an invitation to assist Alexander against his matricidal brother Antipater, and the prospect of being so close to the throne of Macedon was irresistible. So, he abandoned his campaign in the Peloponnesus, but when he arrived, he was informed by Alexander that his services were no longer required. It turns out that Alexander had also asked for the help of his new neighbor, and had received it in full force. That help was none other than Pyrrhus of Epirus. I briefly spoke in the last episode about Pyrrhus, the young exiled king of Epirus, who served as an Antigonid officer during the Battle of Ipsus. Some time afterwards, he was given as a hostage to Ptolemy by Demetrius as part of the marriage alliance with Ptolemaeus. Ptolemy must have seen the promise in the young man, and managed to become rather good friends with Pyrrhus, even offering his stepdaughter Antigone's hand in marriage. With Ptolemy's support, Pyrrhus was able to overthrow the usurper occupying the throne of Epirus, and re-declare himself king of the region. The hostilities between the two sons of Cassander provided Pyrrhus with a ripe opportunity for expanding his kingdom's territory, and he quickly snatched up two huge western portions of Macedonia in return for driving Antipater out to Lysimachus, who would be executed on the grounds of intrigue. Little good this all did to Demetrius, who was probably shocked to see the former exile in such position of power. More irritating was the lack of respect in Antipater's loyalty to Alexander, who beckoned him as if he were a dog to serve his master at a whim. Alexander was also rumored to have tried and had Demetrius assassinated, which reached the latter's ear before being invited to a banquet that was booby trapped. Demetrius managed to turn the tables by inviting Alexander to a banquet of his own, and had the paranoid boy king assassinated at the dinner table while he excused himself off to the bathroom. Quite literally overnight, Demetrius had found himself in control of Macedon, but he needed to address the people's his justified reasoning to overthrow the king, though the Macedonians themselves needed a little persuasion, since the crimes of the Antipater house against the Argeads and the family of Alexander the Great were still fresh, and Lysimachus sought peace with his new neighbor, recognizing Demetrius as king In 294, Demetrius, after decades of warfare, was now finally king of Macedon herself. Of course, this came at a price, since Ptolemy was able to recapture Cyprus, and it would remain in Ptolemaic hands until the conquest by the Romans, and Lysimachus took all the remaining Antigonid cities in Asia Minor. Still, the prize was his at last. Demetrius quickly took his momentum on a campaign to reclaim the territories of Greece, including Thessaly and Boeotia, but word reached him of the vulnerability of Lysimachus' kingdom after a botched battle with some steppe nomads. But in this period, Demetrius' greatest adversary would be Pyrrhus, who matched his ambition with a tactical brilliance that would make people believe he was the second coming of Alexander the Great. Pyrrhus had his interest in expanding Epirus further, and also came to the support of his allies Ptolemy and Lysimachus. The two would throw blow after blow at one another, neither side making much progress, until they were both worn out to the point of making a peace treaty in 289 BC. Demetrius realized that ceding portions of western Macedon was only a temporary setback, because with Macedon united under his name, and most of Greece effectively submissive, Demetrius could finally turn his attention to his true vision, reunification of Alexander's empire. This episode is brought to you by Audible. Well, it's that time of year again, where I become sick to death of shoveling snow and dealing with the bitter cold, or just being stuck inside. Now, to help remedy this, I like to listen to Audible to pass the time. Audible makes it easy to access an unparalleled selection of audiobooks, original shows, right at your fingertips. As a special offer for listeners of the show, Audible is currently offering a 30-day free trial membership, along with a free credit to the book of your choice, to keep. That's right, free. This episode, I'm going to recommend 1177 BC, The Year Civilization Collapsed, by Eric Klein. A fascinating analysis, ranging from the environmental to the economical, of the tumultuous end of the late Bronze Age, with Leph, the Mycenaean Greeks of Homer, and most of the kingdoms of the Near East in ruins. To get this book for free and find out more, go to audibletrial.com forward slash Hellenistic Age Podcast. That's audibletrial.com forward slash Hellenistic Age Podcast. And get started today. Demetrius was planning a remarkable invasion. Numbering approximately 100,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry, the invasion force to conquer Asia was more than double the size that Alexander had taken to conquer the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 334 BC, in addition to an enormous fleet. To the other successors, it was as if Antigonus had risen from the grave to haunt their domains. Something had to be done before Demetrius could even leave Macedon. Pyrrhus was sent a flurry of delegations from Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy to strike at ignoring the peace treaty they had formed. So, in 288, the Fifth War of the Successors would begin, as the coalition enacted a multi-pronged offensive. Ptolemy would launch a naval invasion to take the cities of the Peloponnese, while Lysimachus would invade from the east through Thrace, and Pyrrhus from the west. The Antigonid king had to scramble to secure his territories, leaving Antigonus Gonatas to deal with the threat of Ptolemy, while he himself would deal with Lysimachus. Yet before he could even do that, word reached his camp that Pyrrhus had already taken cities near the capital of Macedon. This did not go over well. I spoke briefly of the pompous and arrogant manner of ruling Demetrius carried himself with in the last episode, and the men who served under him did not take kindly to it. This was further magnified when they compared Demetrius to a king like Pyrrhus, someone who displayed his valor on the battlefield, but also carried them to victory again and again. Fortune decided to take one last sharp turn on the Antigonid king, and the soldiers began to defect, one by one, to the camps of Lysimachus or Pyrrhus. Things may have ended here for Polyarchetes, but for a few soldiers who hinted to Demetrius that it would probably be in his best interest if he slipped out under the cover of night in the guise of a commoner. After six years of ruling Macedon, Demetrius fled his camp disgraced. Macedon was no longer in the hands of the Antigonids, now being split between Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. Surprisingly, this wasn't the end of Demetrius's ambition. He was able to reunite with Ganatas and stake the territories of southern Greece for two years, rebuilding an army by the year 286. But Athens, ever yearning for independence, successfully declared independence from Antigonid rule, and Demetrius, sick of being burned and constantly having to fight with fickle city-states loyalties, decided to cut his losses and risk it all to invade Asia Minor to retake the provinces of Caria and Lydia from Lysimachus. These last few months hint at Demetrius's instability, with him suffering defeat at the hands of Lysimachus's son, Agathocles, and the loss of mercenary forces through attrition and desertion seemed to not faze him as he was being swallowed into Asia. He eventually entered into the territory of Seleucus, who had gathered an army to protect his borders from the Antigonid incursion. But Seleucus must have been aware of the sorry state of the Antigonid camp, despite Demetrius's insistence for a decisive battle. I suspect that the besieger wanted a warrior's death, despite his boast of carving out an independent territory in Asia. But fate would not allow such a thing to occur. Seleucus eventually managed to surprise the forces of Demetrius while the latter was laid low due to illness, but personally asked the Antigonid forces to come over to his side, and they all did so, without a single stone cast. The Antigonid king fled in vain, and even tried to commit suicide by falling on his own sword, but was convinced to give himself over to Seleucus, who was generously offering his father-in-law a chance to surrender on good terms. For three years, Demetrius was kept in a gilded cage in Syria, much at the behest of Lysimachus, who wanted him dead. But Seleucus, partially out of political usefulness and partially out of respect, kept him alive. Demetrius himself abdicated his throne, writing a letter that officially recognized Antigonus Gonatas as his next in line. But during his captivity, Demetrius, no longer the proud warrior he once was, would succumb to drink and disease, before finally ingloriously dying in 282 BC. He was 55 years old. With the death of Demetrius, the number of surviving successors was steadily shrinking. After abdicating the throne in 285, Ptolemy gave his blessing for Ptolemy II to become king in his place. Little over two years later, Ptolemy would die in bed, a remarkable end considering all the murders and battlefield deaths we've seen over the last four episodes for the successors. This did not mean the end of hostilities between the surviving successors, and in fact, it would pick up because of it. Lysimachus was the one to most benefit from Demetrius's death. He had added the wealthiest portion of Macedon to his kingdom, and was finally free from dealing with the upstart barbarian tribes and step-peoples that plagued his kingdom for years. He secured his territory through building programs and propaganda campaigns to blacken the image of Pyrrhus of Epirus as a barbarian interloper. At the same time though, instability was rocking his territory once again, largely thanks to a coup attempt by his son Agathocles, who probably felt unappreciated that he had not been given the title of regent yet, unlike the other kings like Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Demetrius. The coup was unsuccessful, ending with Agathocles' death and a purge of his supporters, who fled to the courts of Ptolemy and Seleucus. Part of the entourage who fled was Agathocles' wife, Lysandra, and more importantly, her brother, the exiled Ptolemy Karanos, also known as the Thunderbolt. Karanos was the eldest son of Ptolemy I, fully expecting to take the throne as heir apparent. Unfortunately for Karanos, his father seemed to favor the younger Ptolemy by another wife instead. Karanos took himself in a self-imposed exile to the court of Lysimachus, who was married to his half-sister Arsinoe. It is rumored that he and Arsinoe had colluded to fuel Lysimachus' suspicion against Agathocles. The Thunderbolt was a scorned man, believing he had been robbed of the diadem and would do anything to achieve power. He and Lysandra, his sister who was married to Agathocles, fled to Seleucus' court. Perhaps it was his moment to play Seleucus and Lysimachus off one another for his own gain. Seleucus needed little prodding in that general direction since he had distrusted Lysimachus for years and never felt comfortable with an expansionist new neighbor, especially considering that he himself was gunning for further conquests. With his territory across the Iranian heartland and Central Asia secure, Seleucus began to amass an army in 282 BC to invade Asia Minor. What could be called the Sixth War of the Successors is not particularly well attested to, but in February 281 BC, the armies of Seleucus and Lysimachus had met on the field battle near the site of Corrupedium. No account of the battle survives, but the outcome was Lysimachus meeting his death on the battlefield at the age of 80. Amazingly, Seleucus, one of the last officers of Alexander to throw his hat into the ring for power, was also the last one standing. Everyone else was now dead, and with Lysimachus' kingdom in chaos, nothing would stop the brilliant commander from marching upon Thrace Macedon, claiming his prize. It seems that the dream of reuniting Alexander's empire was once again now closer than ever. It was not meant to be, however, because a few months after the battle, Seleucus was out riding with a small retinue of people. Ptolemy Kouranos was one of them, and recognizing his opportunity, he grabbed Seleucus and plunged a dagger into the king's back, killing him. Seleucus was 77 years old when he died. The death of Seleucus marked an end of an era. No other surviving officer of Alexander remained, and the world torn apart in the 40-year period following his death was now bequeathed to the second and third generation of kings and queens who came afterward. I would nominally end the period of the Diadohoi Wars upon Seleucus' death, but I feel that the story needs a bit of an epilogue in the last year or two following. Ptolemy Kouranos, seizing his opportunity, had himself declared Basileus of Macedon and Thrace at the city of Lysimachia. The army there had served Lysimachus before his death, and felt no real love for Seleucus or the new king, Antiochus, who was busy putting down a rebellion in Syria instead of confronting the Thunderbolt. Now, instead of Antiochus being the main threat to Kouranos' rule, the other main opponent was none other than Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius I. Since his father's capture, he had been hiding out in Greece attempting to restore power and planned a reconquest for the throne of Macedon. Kouranos decided to shore up support in Macedon and Thrace by marrying Arsinoe, the widow of Lysimachus and his own half-sister. Sounds pretty gross, but don't worry, it gets worse later on. Arsinoe, of course, would have her own hopes and ambitions. She had three children by Lysimachus, and thought that Kouranos would honor her wishes by allowing them to remain in line for the throne. Well, unfortunately for Arsinoe, the Thunderbolt was a real bastard, and he had the children killed immediately after the wedding, reportedly in her arms as she tried to shield them from the assassins. Ptolemy Kouranos would only briefly rule for Macedon for about a year, before some unfortunate accident, while some would say poetic justice, would leave the throne of Macedon vacant. Antigonus Gonatas would use this opportunity to retake the throne, and reestablished himself as king in 276 BC. From this point on, the general structure of the Hellenistic world was now in place. Controlling Macedon and Thrace was the House of the Antigonids, ruling down to 167 BC to its eventual breakup under Roman authority. The Seleucid Empire, with its heartland in Syria and Mesopotamia stretching to modern Afghanistan, was held by the Seleucid dynasty until 64 BC. The last survivor would be Ptolemaic Egypt, which would remain under Greek control until Cleopatra VII's death after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Each kingdom was now effectively secure, with all thoughts of achieving world domination in the style of Alexander the Great or the Diadohoi, ending upon Seleucus's death. The Wars of the Diadohoi are some of the most fascinating conflicts to have occurred in the Spending 40 years across three continents, the breakup of Alexander the Great's empire was the greatest funeral games ever performed, if we want to have a grim sense of cynicism about it. Though I've spent roughly two and a half hours telling this story, there is much I've had to omit for the sake of clarity and brevity. I've tried my best to create a coherent narrative around the major players, and I apologize if any of you have had difficulty in keeping track of names and dates and events. As ever, I direct you to my website, which has show notes for each episode including timelines, who's who, maps and diagrams to aid the process along. If you were interested in this story, and you want to read up more about the Wars of the Diadohoi, you can check out Robin Waterfield's Dividing the Spoils, The War for Alexander's Empire, and or James Romm's Ghost on the Throne, which are both excellent one-volume accounts of the we've been discussing. Other sources I've been consulting are provided on my website in the episode's show notes. So, with this, I will take my leave. Thank you all for your patience and support as we've been walking through four decades of history in about four and a half, five episodes. If you like this show and want to see it grow, please subscribe to me on iTunes, SoundCloud, or whatever platform you use, and leave a five-star review. You can also follow me on Twitter at HellenisticPOD, that's all one word. For updates on show production and interesting historical tidbits and images, all of these links will be provided in the show notes. And so, until next time, you've been listening to the Hellenistic Age Podcast.