創世主带领一些神造了地球和人,也造了最適合於人類的原始食物與「生物的循環體系」。【1】人類的生存和發展產生了農業文明。雖然地球上人類文明包括農業文明曾多次興衰【2】,考古學家無從考證史前每個文明時期的興衰過程,而只能通過C14半衰期和脱氧核糖核酸(DNA)測序等技術來估計古代遺物的年代,從而推測農業文明歷史,演變和傳播(圖1, 圖2)。

圖1:農業的起源中心及其傳播路徑(來源:Diamond, J.; Bellwood, P. Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions. Science. 2003, 300 (5619): 597–603.)

圖2: 古埃及壁畫中的農業活動場景(來源:埃及納赫特(Nakht) 墓,公元前15世紀)
據考古研究, 歐亞大陸(Eurasia)的蘇美爾人(Sumerians )從公元前8000年左右開始生活在村莊中,依靠底格里斯河(Tigris)和幼發拉底河(Euphrates)以及運河系統進行農田灌溉。犁(Ploughs)在公元前3000年左右的象形文字中出現,播種犁(seed-ploughs)則在公元前2300年左右出現。農民種植小麥(wheat)、大麥(barley)、蔬菜如扁豆(lentils)和洋蔥(onions),以及包括棗子(dates)、葡萄(grapes)和無花果(figs)在內的水果。【3】古埃及的農業依賴尼羅河(Nile River)及其季節性洪水。農業始於旧石器時代(Paleolithic)結束後的前王朝時期(predynastic period),即公元前10000年後。主要糧食作物是小麥和大麥,還有亞麻(flax)和莎草(papyrus)等工業作物。【4,5】在印度,小麥、大麥和紅棗(jujube)在公元前9000年被馴化,不久之後又有了羊(sheep)和山羊(goats)。【6】在梅赫加爾(Mehrgarh)文化中,牛(cattle)、羊和山羊於公元前8000-6000年間被馴化。【7,8,9】棉花(cotton)在公元前5至4千年間開始栽培。【10】 在古希腊和古罗马,主要的谷物作物是小麦(wheat)、艾麦(emmer)和大麦(barley),还有包括豌豆(pees)、豆类(beans)和橄榄(olives)在内的蔬菜。绵羊(sheep)和山羊(goats)主要用于乳制品的生产。【11,12】考古證據表明,公元前2500年的印度河流域(Indus Valley)文明出現了動物拉動的犁。【13】
在中国,从公元前5世纪开始,全国范围内建立了粮仓(granary)系统并广泛开展了养蚕业(silk farming)。【14】公元前1世纪开始使用水力驅動石磨以加工谷物,【15】随后出現了引水灌溉農田(圖3)。【16】到了公元2世纪末,出現了装有铁犁铲和犁耕板的重犁(圖3)。【17,18】这些技术向西方传播到了整个欧亚大陆。【19】亚洲稻米(Asian rice)的驯化始于8,200至13,500年前,根据分子钟(molecular clock)估计方法【20】,稻米均源自中国南部珠江(Pearl River)流域的野生稻米Oryza rufipogon。 【21】


圖3: 古代中國引水灌溉農田和牛拉曲轅犁
在美洲,除了墨西哥地区的玉米的野生祖先(teosinte)外,驯化的作物还包括中美洲(Mesoamerica)的南瓜(squash)、豆类(beans)和可可(cacao)。【22】可可在公元前3000年左右由亚马逊上游的Mayo Chinchipe人开始驯化。【23】火鸡(turkey)很可能在墨西哥或美国西南部被驯化。【24】阿兹特克人(Aztecs)发展了灌溉系统,形成了梯田山坡,施肥改良土壤,并开发了人工岛屿(chinampas)。玛雅人(Mayas)从公元前400年开始廣泛地使用运河和垄沟田地系统来耕种沼泽地。【25,26,27,28,29】可可(cacao)在安第斯山脉(Andes)驯化,花生(peanut)、番茄(tomato)、烟草(tobacco)和菠萝(pineapple)也在那里被驯化。【22】棉花(cotton)在公元前3600年左右在秘鲁被驯化。【30】那里还驯化了美洲驼(llamas)、羊驼(alpacas)和豚鼠(guinea pigs)等动物。【31】在北美,东部土著人(indigenous people)驯化了向日葵(sunflower)、烟草(tobacco)、【32】南瓜(squash)和藜科植物(Chenopodium)。【33,34】他们還采集野生稻米(wild rice)和枫糖(maple sugar)等野生食物。【35】驯化的草莓(strawberry)是智利和北美的两种物种的杂交品种,是在欧洲和北美进行杂交育种培育出来的。【36】西南部(Southwest)和太平洋西北部(Pacific Northwest)土著人(indigenous people)实行森林园艺(forest gardening)和火棍农业(fire-stick farming)。他们在一定区域范围内控制火勢,创造了一个维持低密度农业的低强度火耕生态系统,可以说是一种"野生"的永续农业(permaculture)。【37,38,39,40】北美发展了一种被称为"三姐妹"的伴生种植(companion planting)系统,这三种作物是冬季南瓜(winter squash)、玉米(maize)和攀缘豆(climbing beans)。【41,42】
长期以来,人们认为澳大利亚土著居民(Indigenous Australians)是游牧狩猎者(hunter-gatherers),但实际上他们实行了系统性的烧荒(火耕),可能是为了增强火棒农业中的自然生产能力。【43】據研究,狩猎采集者需要一个富饶的环境来支持他们进行采集而不依赖耕种。由于新几内亚(New Guinea)的森林植物种类较少,早期人类可能使用了"选择性烧荒"的方法,以增加野生卡鲁卡(karuka)果树的产量,以维持狩猎采集者的生活方式。【44】
从大约5000年前开始,冈迪特马拉(Gunditjmara)和其他部落发展了鳗鱼(eel)养殖和捕鱼系统。【45】在整个大陆上,这一时期出现了蓬勃發展的证据。【46】在澳大利亚的两个地区,即中西海岸和中东部,早期农民种植了山药(yams)、本土小米(native millet)和灌木洋葱(bush onions),可能是在永久性的定居点上进行的。【47,48】
最近DNA 研究表明,農業是在大約 9,000 年前通過安納托利亞(Anatolia)早期農民的擴張而引入歐洲的。【49】
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