What Happened in the Aftermath of Carrhae? (53 BC) DOCUMENTARY

The Battle of Carrhae was one of Rome's greatest military disasters. Justifiably, most retellings of this important event focus their energy explaining the various factors which led to defeat and discuss the consequences of its fallout. However, lost in this high-level academic approach is the human tragedy which unfolded on the ground level. Today, let us walk a mile in the sandals of the doomed Roman army in the aftermath of Carrhae. You can learn much more about the details of history's worst military blunders through our sponsor OneDrim. OneDrim offers subscription-based on-demand videos covering a huge range of subjects from history to science, travel, art, hobbies, and more. These come delivered in a variety of packages from your more academic courses to well-produced documentaries, exclusives, and more. Their platform has long been my go-to source for background research while making my own documentaries, and I've learned a ton. Of the many series I love, Great Military Blunders presented by Dr. Gregory Aldrite has to be one of my favorites. This 24-part series covers everything from Carrhae to the Red Cliffs, the Kalka River, Operation Market Garden, and more. Lecture 24, Four Paths to Failure, provides an excellent recap of what lessons can be gleaned from millennia of human experience, and my mind was blown by the similarity of issues which have resulted in failure time after time. Right now, OneDrim is offering a free trial, which you can start by clicking the link in the description below or visiting OneDrim.com slash Invicta. I highly recommend that you take a look at what they have to offer and dive into the material that you are most interested in. Enjoy! Before we begin, it will be important to discuss our sources. The Battle of Carrhae is referenced across many ancient records, from poems to plays, letters, and military manuals. At least 15 works are believed by scholars to have contained more specifics about the campaign. However, only 7 relevant portions survive today, and of those, only 2 give enough detail to reconstruct a ground-level perspective. Both were written long after the event, and while they relied on prior sources which were themselves perhaps contemporary, these later works were infused with a hefty dose of their own biases. Some details and quotes strain credulity in the level of their specificity, while many passages smack of a moralizing agenda. Unfortunately, little can be done to remedy these issues, given our limited records. Therefore, it is recommended that you keep these disclaimers in mind as we combine the narrative from our ancient sources with some of our own speculative reconstruction. A quick recap for how we got here. In 53 BC, General Marcus Licinius Crassus led an invasion into Parthia by way of Syria. Crossing the Euphrates, he brought with him some 28,000 legionaries, 4,000 light infantry, and 4,000 cavalry. Near the town of Carrhae, he was met by the Parthian general Serena at the head of 9,000 horse archers, 1,000 cataphracts, and a baggage train of 1,000 camels. Crassus at first extended his lines to prevent an envelopment, but soon reverted to a hollow square upon receiving new reports of the nature of the enemy's mobile force. This greatly increased the protection of his army, but crippled its maneuverability. With the initiative now yielded to the Parthians, Serena was able to begin methodically picking the Roman square apart. Here is how Plutarch describes the scene. When Crassus ordered his light-armed troops to make a charge, they did not advance far, but encountering a multitude of arrows, abandoned their undertaking and ran back for shelter among whom they caused the beginning of disorder and fear. For these now saw the velocity and force of the arrows, which fractured armor and tore their way through every covering alike, whether hard or soft. Our sources note that for a time, the Romans hoped to merely outlast the storm of arrows and then make a break for safety under cover of darkness. However, these plans were dashed when they saw caravans of enemy camels arriving with fresh supplies. Sitting back was no longer an option. Crassus thus resolved to send out a large attack meant to drive back the enemy. Plutarch reports that this force was led by his own son Publius, along with 1300 cavalry, 500 foot archers, and 8 legionary cohorts. They made initial progress in driving the foe back. However, in doing so, they became overextended and fell prey to a classic feigned retreat. The Parthians now wheeled back on the isolated force. Here is how Plutarch puts it, quote, The enemy stationed their male-clad horsemen in front of the Romans, and then, with the rest of the cavalry in loose array, rode round them, tearing up the surface of the ground and raising from the depths great heaps of sand which fell in limitless showers of dust, so that the Romans could neither see clearly nor speak plainly, but being crowded into a narrow compass and falling upon one another, were shot and died no easy nor even speedy death. For in the agonies of convulsive pain and writhing about the arrows, they would break them off in their wounds, and then, in trying to pull out by force the barbed heads which had pierced their veins and sinews, they tore and disfigured themselves the more. Thus many died, and the survivors also were incapacitated for fighting. And when Publius urged them to charge the enemy's male-clad horsemen, they showed him that their hands were riveted to their shields, their feet nailed through and through to the ground, so that they were helpless either for flight or for self-defense. It's at this time that Publius rose to the occasion and charged boldly into the ranks of the enemy. It was a ferocious battle, but the heat and the enemy quickly got the better of them. A severely wounded Publius now pulled his remaining men back to a nearby sandy hill, where he hoped to find better odds. However, the sloping terrain had the perverse effect of exposing more men to the withering shower of arrows. Desperate messengers were sent back to the main army calling for aid, but it was unclear if any managed to escape. As the noose tightened around the neck of the Roman force, apparently some officers began to panic, urging Publius to flee on horse while there may yet be time. Plutarch claims that instead of taking this dishonorable route, the injured general chose instead to remain with his doomed men and die by his own sword. As others in the leadership corps followed suit, the rank and file survivors fought on desperately. In short order, the Parthians overwhelmed the hill with no more than 500 of the original 5,000 Romans being taken alive. Tidings of these events made their way back to Crassus with conflicting reports. The initial messages and thinning of the enemy ranks seemed to indicate that the sally had been successful in routing the enemy. The main Roman force thus managed to reform and reposition itself on sloping ground where it awaited the return of Publius. However, as the hours dragged on and the clouds of dust in the distance only grew taller, it was clear that something had gone terribly wrong. A few messengers trickled in through the desert to report that the Roman force was lost unless immediate aid was sent. Crassus was torn between saving his son and risking the rest of the army. As he began to slip into a dreadful mental state, the drums of the foe were heard again, signaling the beginning of a Swarms of Parthians began appearing on the horizon. Plutarch claims that this spectacle of their return was made all the more horrifying by a rider who bore the severed head of Publius in full view of the Roman army. This must have dealt an incredible blow to the morale of the legions and certainly their commander. Speeches were reportedly made to raise their spirits, but few listened, and when hastened to raise a battle cry, it was delivered weak, feeble, and uneven. Such timidity only further emboldened the Parthians, who now unleashed fresh attacks. These proved more devastating than ever, as the Roman army had been stripped of most of its mounted and ranged forces that might have allowed them to fight back. Thus, with one side effectively unarmed, the battle devolved into a slaughter. Here is how Plutarch puts it, quote, Then as the enemy got to work, their light cavalry rode around the flanks of Romans and shot them with arrows, while the male-clad horsemen in front, plying their long spears, kept driving them together into a narrow space, except those who, to escape death from the arrows, made bold to rush desperately upon their foes. These did little damage, but were met with a speedy death from great and fatal wounds, since the spear which the Parthians thrust from their horses was heavy with steel, and often had impetus enough to pierce through two men at once. Cassius Dio further adds that, quote, The Romans would have perished utterly, but for the fact that some of the pikes of the barbarians were bent and others were broken, while their bowstrings snapped under the constant shooting, the missiles were exhausted, the swords all blunted, and most of all, that the men themselves grew weary of slaughter. Ultimately, it was only by the grace of nightfall that the Battle of Carrhae would conclude. By all accounts, the Roman army had been defeated and would now be forced to return home. This is where most narratives of the disaster conclude. However, for the men on the ground, it was just the beginning of their nightmare. As the sun set, the Parthians are said to have pulled back to make camp nearby. The Romans, meanwhile, were grouped in their own camp. We were left with no details as to its state, but owing to the ragged nature of the army and the general lack of building materials in the area, it was likely not the formidable fortress one might expect to find in a typical campaign. Exhausted and terrified soldiers may have fallen back to the routines of pitching tents and preparing meals, but by and large, they seemed to have been robbed of all their energy. Plutarch reports it was a grievous night for the legions. Quote, They took no steps to bury their dead, nor to care for their wounded and dying, but every man was lamenting his own fate. Escape seemed impossible, whether they waited there for day to come or plunged by night into a limitless plain. And their injured caused them much perplexity, for they were sure to impede flight if they were carried away, and if they were left behind, their cries would herald to the enemy the retreat of their companions. Although the soldiers held Crassus to blame for all their ills, they still yearned to see his face and hear his voice. But he was lying on the ground by himself, enveloped in darkness. Absolute paralysis of the army was luckily averted by the initiative of the legate Octavius, who called an assembly of the centurions and senior captains. Together, these debated the best course of action. Ultimately, it was decided that their salvation lay with the most expedient withdrawal to the nearby walled town of Carai. Thus, the leadership dispersed, and by word of mouth alone, induced those who could rise to now get the army in motion. One must imagine the sheer panic among the wounded who saw their tentmates silently pack their belongings and make for the exits. Undoubtedly, many would have hobbled to join them, but others, who could not, began to cry out in protest. Plutarch here states that groans and shouts soon filled the camp and risked betraying the entire operation to the enemy. One must wonder then what platitudes, gags, or even daggers may have been used in a vain attempt to silence them. In this manner did the Roman army and its camp followers, still likely numbering around 20,000, drag itself across the night-shrouded plains. Here is how Plutarch puts it, As they tried to advance, disorder and panic seized upon them, for they felt sure that the enemy was coming against them. Frequently they would change their course, or they would form an order of battle. Some of the wounded who followed them had to be taken up and others to be laid down, and so all were delayed except 300 horsemen under Ignatius who reached Carrhae about midnight. These riders were able to summon the Roman garrison there, which set out with all haste to escort the remaining legions back to town. The rabble which entered and cast itself haphazardly among the buildings and streets out of sheer exhaustion was unrecognizable as the same Roman army which had proudly paraded through the town just a few days ago. As the red sun rose across the land, it gave light to a myriad of scenes. In Carrhae, a waking Crassus was finally faced with the magnitude of his losses. Atop the walls, sentries watched as yet another group of stragglers made their way across the dusty road. Out along the plains, disoriented Romans realized just how badly they had lost their way in the dark. And in the abandoned camp, dying men watched as the buzzards circled overhead. The only ounce of mirth to be found in the aftermath of battle would be in the Parthian camp, where the victors now prepared to finish what they had started. Likely scouts would have been active all throughout the night, but now the bulk of the mounted force could ride out in pursuit of Crassus. Their first stop would have been the nearby Roman camp. Perhaps some token of resistance was offered, but there was little that could halt the furious attack of the Parthians, keen on punishing the arrogant invaders. Plutarch claims that they slaughtered 4,000 men before riding off in pursuit of their true prey, which had slipped away under cover of night. Hordes of cavalry now spread out across the plain, seizing or destroying any who fell into their grasp. One particularly large group of four cohorts attempted to make a stand atop a small hill, but to no avail. They were cut to pieces, with only 20 men being spared. Next, the Parthians advanced on Carrhae, where it was quickly determined that Crassus and the bulk of the legions were holed up. Serena may have feared that the Romans might yet slip away, and thus sent envoys ahead, offering a truce to the invaders, such that they might be lulled into a false sense of security. However, as the Parthian army finally gathered before the city, these negotiators revised their terms. Truce would only be offered when Crassus and Cassius were delivered in chains. The legions were distressed by this deception, and made ready to flee before the city was fully enveloped. That night, the Romans slipped out once more into the darkness seeking salvation. Unfortunately, a full moon and a traitorous guide betrayed their flight. As Crassus was led on a circuitous march through the marshes and ditches, the Parthians stalked them from behind like a predator, awaiting its chance to strike. Such little progress was made by the time the sun began to rise that Crassus and the bulk of his army retreated back to the relative safety of Carai, rather than face the dangers of the plain. Yet some decided to make the gamble. Apparently, several hundred cavalry rode off for Syria, while the officer Octavius and some 5,000 men managed to reach the hill country of Sinaca. The strength and morale of the legions which remained trapped in Carai was quickly deteriorating. They must make one last attempt at escape, or be swallowed by the foe. Thus, on the next moonless night, Crassus and his rabble of an army silently set out along the western road. Over the following hours, they were once again led astray and delayed by a traitorous guide. Thus, by daybreak, many troops had lost their way, or simply deserted the main column. When Crassus finally regained the road, he had with him but four cohorts, a handful of horsemen, and five lictors. This was a pale shadow of the force which had first marched into Syria, and was no match for the Parthian army which quickly descended upon their position. Luckily, Octavius and his 5,000 men were nearby as well, and a race for Crassus was now underway. Here is how Plutarch puts it, boldly declaring that no Parthian missile could smite their imperator until they had all died fighting in his defense. This sudden rally of the Roman army succeeded in slowing the Parthian assault. In the hilly terrain, Serena found his men less capable of swift victory and now feared that his prey might be able to slip away come nightfall. He therefore devised a new ploy. Roman captives were let slip from camp after having been fed stories that a truce may still yet be reached. This was then followed up by Serena and his officers, who rode up to the Roman position, saying, quote, I have put your valor and power to the test against the wishes of the king, who now, of his own accord, shows you the mildness and friendliness of his feelings by offering to make a truce with you if you will but withdraw, and by affording you the means of safety. At this, the exhausted Roman soldiers accepted the offer with joy, but Crassus, justifiably skeptical, refused to answer them. Soon, his men began to hurl insults and threaten violence against their commander for his obstinance. Why should they risk life and limb in his defense if he would not even dare join with the enemy in mere talks? Finally, he acquiesced and went down the hill to meet the Parthians. It was said that Octavius and several ranking men went with him to the parley. What happened next is, even by the admission of ancient historians, conjecture. Plutarch and Cassius suggest that a scuffle broke out in the process of Crassus being mounted on a gift horse. Soon, weapons were drawn and in the melee, the Roman general was slain. Future legend would add that the Parthians mocked the ignominious death of this greedy man by having gold poured down his throat. This last act simultaneously cut the head off the Roman army. Now, effectively leaderless, it fell into complete disarray. Some were said to surrender willingly to the Parthians while others scattered into the coming night. These fugitives would be hunted down in the days that followed. Speculatively, we must imagine desperate men now scrambling their way across Syria whilst in hot pursuit. The open plains would have offered little cover and so perhaps they sought to seek refuge in local woodlands, shrines, or towns. Cassius Dio writes that in the Roman army's initial advance, they had raided many of these locations and thus the locals would have offered them little aid in their retreat. The greed of the Roman army would be their undoing as well. In the whole of the campaign, it is impossible to tell just how many men lost their lives. Plutarch claims that 20,000 were killed while 10,000 were captured. The figures must be taken with a grain of salt to be sure, but speak of the catastrophic nature of the disaster whose casualties appear to have exceeded those of the later battle of Teutoburg. The Romans who made it home safe would go on to spread the tale of horror while those left behind would now be dragged back to the east in captivity. Along the way, they would likely have been forced to watch as the Parthian victors now set about looting the battlefields of the Roman dead. The great caravan train which had once brought the arrows of Rome's undoing now overflowed with western treasures, including several legionary eagles. These prizes of victory would be scattered across the lands of Parthia and holed up in its great treasuries. Among these, the head of Crassus was said to have been delivered by Serena to King Orodes while the rest of the men and goods were paraded in mock triumph. Here, a captive in the likeness of Crassus was made to ride in woman's garb while Such over-the-top details start to veer quite quickly into the realm of later propaganda, but at least give us a sense of just how shocking this defeat had been to the psyche of the Romans. It would take 33 years before Augustus was finally able to negotiate the return of the eagles and win some form of redemption. As to what happened to the Roman prisoners of war during this period, we shall never know, while speculation claims that some may have ended up as far away as China. We discuss this in another video if you'd like to learn more about such a possibility, but for now, this is where we will end the episode. If you liked the art for this video, head on over to our Patreon to grab a download and get access to the latest previews of what's coming next, and support us for future endeavors. A big thanks to the researchers, writers, and artists for making this episode possible. Be sure to like and subscribe for more content, and check out these other related videos. See you in the next one.