Dress Historian Analyzes Victorian Mourning Clothing of the Mid-19th Century

Victorian morning clothing and practices never fail to fascinate us today. It seems every museum, from the Met to your local historical house, has had a morning exhibit, especially around Halloween. But the popularity of Victorian morning clothing means there are a lot of myths and misconceptions surrounding it, which I hope I can dispel. In this video, I will be sharing my research into the morning clothing of the mid-19th century, primarily the 1850s and 60s. Why this specific time frame? I think we sometimes do ourselves a disservice when we lump everything into the Victorian period. Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901, and not only did fashion change a lot over the course of those 63 years, but cultural norms, technology, and populations changed a lot too. What was true in the 1850s may not still be true in the 1890s. The beginning of the 19th century saw a dramatic increase in the popularity and prevalence of wearing morning clothing for personal loss, as opposed to state or court mourning, as well as the codification of what was considered appropriate for mourning. Jay's Morning Warehouse, the largest and most famous morning department store, opened its doors in 1841 in response to this emerging trend. In England, the death of Prince Albert in 1861 plunged Queen Victoria, perhaps the most famous widow of all time, into a lifetime of mourning. In the United States, the Civil War from 1861 to 1865 claimed upwards of 700,000 lives and forever altered the deathways of American culture. During the January Uprising of 1863, Polish women wore morning clothing as a sign of patriotism and protest, until it was prohibited by Russian authorities unless the woman could prove there had been a death in the family. This is the time period that I got started in 15 years ago when I began historical costuming in living history, and one that I still find fascinating in terms of aesthetic, construction techniques, and social history. I do feel it's important to point out that my research has focused on white American and English practices, however the general customs of mourning dress were also observed throughout Europe. There is still more work to be done to research how communities of color in America and Europe observed or adapted white mourning practices and how they preserved their own tradition. The openness about death and grief that existed in the 19th century may seem eccentric or even morbid to 21st century observers. Today, few people continue to wear black for any period of time after the loss of a loved one, if they even wear black to a funeral to begin with. But for people of the mid-19th century, particularly women, the rituals of mourning dress provided a socially accepted system for expressing and processing grief and loss. Wearing mourning clothing was an outward and visible sign of an inward invisible state. Even the 1980s post-punk band the Smiths expresses this in their song Unlovable with the line, Along with limited social interaction, women were expected to demonstrate their grief through a change in clothing that corresponded with the degrees of mourning based on their relationship to the deceased and the amount of time that had passed since the death. The progression from wearing all black to lighter colors was meant to mirror the emotional progression that the bereaved could experience, moving from all-consuming grief and limited social interaction to eventual healing and return to society. The exact number of degrees of mourning seems to vary throughout the mid-19th century, and not all sources agree with each other. In her 1860 publication The Lady's Book of Etiquette, author Florence Hartley wrote, Published in 1838, the Work Woman's Guide contains one of the earliest 19th century descriptions of the degrees of mourning and gives four different degrees from deepest to lightest. But Godes in 1857 simply stated that, As our readers very well know, there is deep mourning and second mourning. In the most general sense, mid-19th century mourning can be divided into deep or full mourning, which was worn for husbands, parents, and other close relations immediately after death, and lighter stages of mourning, variously called second or half mourning or simply light mourning, worn for more distant relations immediately after death or after wearing full mourning. For deep or full mourning, matte black was deemed most appropriate. The emphasis on matte black material, sometimes called dead black, is an important distinction since black was also a fashionable and practical color for women's dresses. In fact, the philosophy of housekeeping suggests that, If a lady can have but one silk dress in a series of years, she will find a black silk will be of more use to her than any other color. Black is becoming to every complexion, and a black silk may be worn at a wedding, a party, a funeral, or to church. We can see an example of a fashionable black dress in this 1864 portrait of Mrs. James Guthrie. The fabric has a definite sheen to it that would make it inappropriate for full mourning, but quite striking as a fashionable dress. On the other hand, the dull black of this dress from the National Trust collections, as well as its black crepe trim, are perfect examples of a full mourning dress. In the lighter degrees of mourning, crepe and matte black fabrics were replaced with glossier black silks and more elaborate trims. Limited colors such as gray, purple, lavender, and white were allowed, with Florence Hartley suggesting that light purple or lavender being the dress usually worn last. In spite of these ideals for the rituals of mourning, it was location, personal preference, and economics that more strongly informed an individual's ability and inclination to participate in the rituals. What was considered appropriate for mourning could vary widely between communities, as the fashion writers of Godey's magazine explained in February 1857. In Philadelphia, severity and neatness carry the day. In New York, many do not scruple to mingle jets and bugles, crepe flowers and feathers, even in what they call deep mourning. Philadelphians are inclined to carry mourning to extremes, however, much more than any of their Atlantic neighbors. They keep their shutters bowed and their veils down much longer than the New Yorker or the Bostonian. In New York, it is too gay. In Boston, fashion is by no means so arbitrary as elsewhere. People are inclined to have minds of their own and follow feeling and convenience rather than form. Popular magazines and etiquette books acknowledge the effect that personal choice and circumstance had on the extent to which one might follow the current social customs of mourning dress, and emphasized the importance of wearing mourning dress based on one's emotional state, as opposed to vanity or the dictates of fashion. A Godey's writer understood mourning dress had become the subject of so much conventional formality and abuse that many refrain from assuming it, their sorrow being of the heart and their mourning not meant for the eyes of the world. Another Godey's writer advised that the length of mourning is a matter of feeling entirely. Some do not put on mourning. Others carry it to a ridiculous excess. It's clear that even in the mid-19th century, people recognized that mourning customs could cause more harm than good, especially when fashion and formality took priority over feeling. Those who did not put on mourning at all might have forgone the practice for a number of reasons. Economic hardships from war or poverty in general may have prevented a woman from obtaining mourning clothes, let alone basic necessities. For Kate Stone, the economic effects of the Civil War hindered her family's ability to mourn the death of her brother Walter in 1863. Though Kate felt that she should wear nothing but black, she sadly admitted in her diary a few months later, I will be forced to take off mourning this winter since I can get nothing black to wear. We are thankful for any kind of cloth. An Ohio woman wrote to her friend also in 1863 that, quote, so many deaths are now occurring at home and in the army that black apparel is not so generally worn as formerly. It is not pleasant to wear somber black for long periods, and besides, it is far costlier than before the war, end quote. Even in times of peace, the custom of mourning dress was a burden for those already struggling to make ends meet. Like many working class women, the English servant Hannah Colwick could only make do with what she already had and the charity she received from others. After learning of the death of her aunt, Colwick wrote in her diary that she would add crepe to her black straw bonnet and that a friend had given her a secondhand dress that would be suitable. The expenditure on new clothing was seen by some as impractical or even wasteful. One author suggested that, quote, if all the money that was spent in buying mourning was given to the poor, there would be less misery in the world by a great deal. Those whose circumstance or community standards compelled them to participate in the custom of mourning dress had no shortage of advice on which fabrics were best for making up their mourning dress or wardrobe. The greatest concern for those going into full mourning was choosing the right shade of black, and this was mentioned frequently in articles from Godey's. One writer in 1861 stressed, a good black is always the first thing to be considered in the choice of mourning. If it be rusty or gray, no matter how costly the material, the effect is shabby. Similarly, another writer insisted, in choosing mourning goods, the first essential even before quality is a good shade of black, neither blue nor rusty. A dead, solid color is considered most desirable. Even with synthetic dyes, true black was one of the more difficult shades to obtain in textiles and involved potentially toxic chemicals in the dyes and mordants. Black dyes had a tendency to stain the skin of the wearer. Florence Hartley included instructions in her Lady's Book of Etiquette to remove black stains from the skin since, quote, ladies that wear mourning in warm weather are much incommoded by the blackness it leaves on the arms and neck, and which cannot be easily removed, even by soap and water, end quote. She recommended a mix of equal portions cream of tartar and oxalic acid, the poisonous substance found in rhubarb leaves and often used as a cleaning agent, to be rubbed on the skin with a damp towel and then immediately washed off. Stains and toxic dyes are likely the reason that there is almost no evidence for black mourning undergarments like chemises and drawers in the mid-19th century. Undergarments were also meant to be easily laundered and bleached back to cleanliness, so having them anything other than white would be simply impractical. When it came time to make up the bodice of the mourning dress, there was no shortage of advice on the best materials to use, even for the lining. One Gaudi's fashion writer in July of 1853 was pleased to inform readers that it was no longer considered necessary to double-line bodices of sheer summer mourning dresses by layering black silk over drilling or plain cotton. Instead, they suggested using black linen that had first been boiled in salt and water to prevent it from staining the skin and undergarments worn beneath the dress. Fabrics for full mourning dresses were often wool, such as cashmere and merino, or silk and wool blends as the wool contributed to a dull surface. Bombazine, a twilled fabric with a silk warp and worsted weft, was considered the most suitable material for mourning dresses and had been associated with mourning since at least the 18th century. In summer, full mourning dresses could be made of a sheer silk and wool blend called berej, or other thin and lightweight silks. Gaudi's warned against black cotton lawn as a summer dress material because of its tendency to stain the skin, since plant fibers like cotton and linen don't tend to hold dyes as well as protein fibers like silk and wool. Though it may have been tempting to families concerned with economy and frugality, Gaudi's did not advise over-dyeing existing dresses black, since dyed silks can always be detected and are never really nice. By far, the most iconic fabric for full mourning in the mid-19th century was crepe. Crepe was used for veils, collars, cuffs, bonnets, and trim for full mourning dresses and outerwear. In fact, it was the only trim advised for full mourning. Not only was crepe matte and black, it had a distinctive, deeply crinkled texture. Tightly twisted, undyed crepe yarns were woven into fabric, then embossed on a crimping machine. Next, the fabric was dyed, and finally the sheen of the fabric was removed with various combinations of starch, glue, and treacle, making it the flat black appropriate for full mourning. Cole's Encyclopedia of Dry Goods, published in 1900, states that, quote, "'Mourning' or hard crepe has been a staple fabric in both Europe and America for upwards of two centuries," end quote. Its manufacture was centered in England, with the textile firm Courtauld & Co. monopolizing the crepe export market and claiming to be the only true English crepe, or crepe anglaise. A long, black crepe veil was the hallmark of a woman in full mourning. In her Guide to Dressmaking and Millinery, published in 1860, Mrs. Marion Pullen explained that a full mourning veil is, quote, always of crepe, and in this country is worn very long, most inconveniently and absurdly so, end quote. Widow's veils in particular might be of a double layer of crepe, as Godes described in 1857, while, quote, others in deep mourning wear a single thickness and width, about a yard ordinarily, and two yards long. The veil is then thrown over the bonnet midway, as to length and breadth, and secured by a black veil pin to the bonnet on each side. Others adhere to a string of black ribbon run through the top hem, end quote. These veils shielded a woman from the intrusive eyes of strangers, silently proclaiming to the public that she was not to be disturbed. In her series of articles on widows for godes of 1863, Mrs. Browning praised the mourning veil as a source of comfort for widow, saying, "...many a stricken woman could not be persuaded to go beyond the threshold of her desolated home, but for this welcome screen, which gives her the sacred seclusion she craves, while she moves once more among the busy, indifferent crowd." As much as the long crepe veil provided shelter and privacy to the widow or woman in full mourning, it was also infamous for being uncomfortable and even hazardous. The chemicals involved in dyeing the crepe, and the fact that it was worn close to the eyes, nose, and mouth, meant that poisonous particulates were ever-present, potentially causing skin and respiratory ailments. Many godes writers throughout the mid-19th century described the hazards of crepe mourning veils with such phrases as, "...that trial to health and spirits, a certain injury if kept over the face, and blinding and stifling." Nevertheless, the long crepe veil would persist as the icon of the woman in full mourning for the rest of the 19th century. Veils made of other materials could be worn in lighter stages of mourning, such as veils for second mourning described by Godes in March 1859 as being a voilette, or demi-veil, of tulle, grenadine, or net, with round corners and a border of crepe or tulle. However, veils were also a fashionable accessory in the 1850s and 60s, so it's important to differentiate fashionable veils from mourning veils in order to more accurately interpret mid-19th century mourning culture. Veils served a practical function as well as a decorative one, protecting the wearer from sun and dust. Florence Hartley recommended a thick berej veil for traveling, which would protect the wearer's hat or bonnet and also provide a way to, quote, "...repel impertinence," end quote, when traveling alone. They were particularly popular for outdoor activities like riding and visits to the seaside. The widow's cap was an iconic accessory for the widow of the mid-19th century and was especially popular in England. While a widow's full mourning clothing and accessories would have been all black, the widow's cap was almost always white. In February of 1854, a Godes writer remarked that the fashion of wearing widow's caps has of late been adopted in this country, particularly New York, where it is so common as to no longer excite the curiosity it called out at first when worn by young persons. Widow's caps of the mid-19th century took on a particular style that set them apart from fashionable caps and headdresses. They fit close to the head and were decorated with tightly gathered trim known as quilling. Some women, such as Queen Victoria, favored widow's caps with a pointed brim known as a la Marie Stuart. Lappets are another common feature of widow's caps, being long and rectangular with a relatively wide hem all around, like the falling bands of a clergyman. One particularly poignant example of comes from the images of two mourning monarchs, whose friendship was deepened by grief. While most people know of Queen Victoria's loss of Prince Albert in 1861, fewer know of Queen Emma of Hawaii, who lost her son in 1862 and her husband, King Kamehameha IV, in 1863. Queen Victoria had been godmother to Queen Emma's son, and the two exchanged letters speaking of their own losses and comforting each other. In 1865, Queen Emma traveled to England to meet with Queen Victoria, who wrote in her diary, Collars, cuffs, and undersleeves served similar functions for the woman of the mid-19th century. They were made separate from the dress, which allowed for a variety in the wardrobe and helped protect the dress from the oils and dirt of the body. These small items could be easily removed for laundering without the need to launder the entire dress. Accordingly, they were almost always white, and their cleanliness and tidiness conveyed to the world the moral purity of the wearer. Florence Hartley could not stress enough the power of these items to both make the entirely ruin the effect of the most costly and elaborate dress. It's very uncommon to see an adult woman of the 1850s and 60s in a high-necked dress without a white collar, whether it be a flat collar that lay on the outside of the dress or a standing collar, sometimes worn peeking above a narrower permanent collar of the same fabric as the dress. With this understanding in mind, the black crepe collar, cuffs, and undersleeves of full mourning and the black and white items for lighter stages of mourning become all the more indicative of the separate and specialized situation of the woman in full mourning. Photographs of women wearing full mourning collars also reveal that these crepe collars were commonly pleated or otherwise created with additional layers and texture that are often absent from fashionable collars. A Goethe's article from September of 1854 went into great detail about appropriate styles of collar for different degrees of mourning, such as a large collar of crepe fluted from the center for mourning and collars of tarleton, crepe, and Swiss muslin trimmed with lace and insertion stitches for lighter stages. Mrs. Marion Pullen remarks that the practice of wearing black collar and cuffs for deep mourning is customary in America, but elsewhere plain hemmed clear muslin is considered equally proper and is most worn by widows especially. It certainly has a cleaner look than the black crepe around the neck and wrists. Goethe's of 1868 echoes these concerns stating, it is customary at first in deep mourning to wear collars and sleeves of black crepe, but where they prove very unbecoming, white tarleton may be substituted. Rather than simply assuming every black item of clothing is for mourning or that every woman depicted in a black or dark colored dress is in mourning, an in-depth look at mid-19th century ideals and practices allows for a more nuanced understanding of the part that mourning clothing played in the lives of women of the past. Anyone interested in recreating mourning clothing for living history or for personal historical costuming should make and wear it with respect for those who lost and grieved for their loved ones over 150 years ago, as well as the people today who are grieving the loss of someone they love. The crepe veil and black dress are not merely a costume to be put on, but an emblem of loss and grief and a reminder of how the reality of death connects us all, past and present.