By Emmanuel Bobby
The United States and Saudi Arabia have signed a landmark civil nuclear cooperation agreement that establishes the legal framework for what officials describe as a long-term, multibillion-dollar partnership focused on developing the kingdom’s civilian nuclear energy program while promoting nuclear safety and nonproliferation.
The agreement was formally announced Wednesday by the U.S. Department of Energy, which said U.S. Secretary of Energy Chris Wright and Saudi Energy Minister Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman signed the accord, commonly known as a “123 Agreement,” along with a bilateral safeguards agreement.
Together, the two agreements establish the legal foundation for decades of cooperation between the two countries in the peaceful use of nuclear technology.
Agreement Establishes Long-Term Nuclear Partnership
In announcing the deal, the Energy Department said the agreements are intended to strengthen economic and strategic ties while maintaining high standards for nuclear security.
“U.S. Secretary of Energy Chris Wright and Saudi Minister of Energy His Royal Highness (HRH) Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement, commonly known as a 123 agreement, alongside an accompanying bilateral safeguards agreement,” the department said in a statement.
The agency added that the agreements “lay the legal foundation for a decades-long, multi-billion-dollar partnership that advances several priority economic and strategic objectives, including nuclear nonproliferation.”
Secretary Wright emphasized that the agreement is designed to ensure that Saudi Arabia’s civilian nuclear program adheres to strict international standards.
“Rest assured, these agreements uphold the highest standards of nuclear safety and nonproliferation, while relying on the world’s best nuclear technology and scientists, designed right here in the United States,” Wright said.
Trump Administration Approved the Deal
Administration officials said President Donald Trump personally approved the agreement before it was finalized.
Under the arrangement, the United States will assist Saudi Arabia in establishing a commercial nuclear energy program, while American companies are expected to play a central role in designing and constructing nuclear facilities throughout the kingdom.
Supporters of the agreement argue it will strengthen America’s strategic influence in the Middle East while creating major business opportunities for U.S. companies in the nuclear energy sector.
The full text of the agreement has not yet been released publicly, and administration officials have not disclosed all of its provisions.
Uranium Enrichment Raises Questions
According to individuals familiar with the agreement, one of its most closely watched provisions would allow U.S. companies to help develop a uranium enrichment facility in Saudi Arabia if a joint U.S.-Saudi feasibility study determines such a project is appropriate.
The agreement reportedly does not require the strictest level of United Nations nuclear inspections, nor does it appear to include a permanent prohibition on uranium enrichment or the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel.
Those issues have long been among the most contentious aspects of negotiations over Saudi Arabia’s civilian nuclear ambitions.
While uranium enrichment is commonly used to produce fuel for civilian nuclear reactors, experts note that the same technology can also be used to produce highly enriched uranium suitable for nuclear weapons if pursued beyond peaceful purposes.
Congressional Review Still Required
Although the agreement has been signed, it must still undergo congressional review.
Under U.S. law, Congress has the authority to block the agreement. However, doing so would require a veto-proof majority, making congressional rejection difficult if the White House remains supportive.
If allowed to proceed, the agreement could enable Saudi Arabia to develop domestic uranium enrichment capabilities under agreed-upon safeguards, a prospect that has generated debate among nuclear experts and lawmakers concerned about regional arms competition.
Rubio Rejects Proliferation Concerns
Ahead of the official announcement, Secretary of State Marco Rubio addressed concerns that the agreement could contribute to nuclear weapons proliferation.
Rubio insisted the United States would not approve any arrangement that increases the risk of another nation developing nuclear weapons.
“We would not reach any agreement with any country in the world that leads to the risk of proliferation,” Rubio said.
Administration officials maintain that the safeguards included in the agreement will ensure Saudi Arabia’s nuclear program remains focused exclusively on civilian energy production.
Agreement Comes Amid Regional Tensions
The signing comes during a period of heightened instability in the Middle East as military operations involving the United States, Israel, and Iran continue.
President Trump has repeatedly argued that preventing Iran from acquiring a nuclear weapon remains one of his administration’s highest national security priorities, although Tehran continues to insist that its nuclear program is intended solely for peaceful purposes.
For years, U.S. policymakers linked Saudi Arabia’s pursuit of civilian nuclear technology to broader diplomatic efforts aimed at normalizing relations between Saudi Arabia and Israel.
Saudi leaders have consistently stated that full normalization would require meaningful progress toward establishing a Palestinian state, slowing negotiations over both issues.
Nevertheless, discussions regarding civilian nuclear cooperation continued independently.
Secretary Wright held talks with Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman regarding Saudi Arabia’s commercial nuclear ambitions during a visit to the kingdom last year, shortly before President Trump traveled to Saudi Arabia in May 2025.
Experts Warn Details Will Be Critical
Nuclear policy experts say the ultimate significance of the agreement will depend on the safeguards contained within its final text.
Darya Dolzikova, a senior research fellow specializing in nuclear proliferation at the Royal United Services Institute in London, said any agreement involving uranium enrichment requires exceptionally strong oversight.
“Any country, period, but particularly countries of proliferation concern, have to be really, really robust on their nonproliferation provisions,” she said.
Dolzikova also noted previous comments by Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, who has warned that Saudi Arabia would seek its own nuclear weapons capability if Iran were ever to successfully obtain one.
Those remarks have fueled international concern over the possibility of a regional nuclear arms race.
Pakistan Connection Adds to Regional Concerns
Additional attention has focused on Saudi Arabia’s growing defense relationship with Pakistan.
In September, Saudi Arabia signed a mutual defense agreement with Pakistan, the world’s only Muslim-majority nation possessing nuclear weapons.
Following that agreement, Pakistani Defense Minister Khawaja Asif said Pakistan’s nuclear program could be made available to Saudi Arabia if circumstances required, remarks that drew international scrutiny despite the absence of any formal nuclear-sharing arrangement.
IAEA Oversight Expected to Play Key Role
Saudi Arabia is a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations-affiliated organization responsible for promoting peaceful nuclear development while monitoring countries’ nuclear activities to detect potential weapons programs.
Experts say one of the most important unanswered questions is whether the new agreement includes the IAEA’s “Additional Protocol,” which grants inspectors expanded authority to monitor nuclear facilities, materials, and related activities.
Another key issue is whether Saudi Arabia has agreed to the so-called “gold standard” safeguards, under which countries voluntarily forgo uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing—two technologies that can be used in both civilian energy production and nuclear weapons development.
Sanam Vakil, director of the Middle East and North Africa Program at Chatham House in London, said the final details will determine how the agreement is viewed internationally.
“Ultimately, the devil will be in the details,” Vakil said.
If Saudi Arabia retains the ability to enrich uranium domestically, she added, “it’s the issue of domestic enrichment that will be more concerning and alarming.”
Gulf Allies Signal Improved Relations
The nuclear agreement was announced one day after senior officials from Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates released coordinated public statements emphasizing the two countries’ longstanding partnership and shared leadership.
The statements appeared aimed at easing concerns following months of diplomatic tensions between the Gulf powers.
Saudi Arabia and the UAE have differed over several regional issues, including support for opposing factions in Yemen’s civil war and disagreements over oil production quotas.
Relations became particularly strained following a Saudi airstrike late last year targeting what Riyadh said was a shipment of UAE military equipment destined for a Yemeni faction supported by Abu Dhabi.
Despite those disagreements, recent public messages from Saudi Media Minister Salman Al-Dosary and UAE National Media Authority Chairman Abdulla bin Mohamed Alhamed stressed the importance of focusing on the countries’ shared history, common interests, and continued regional cooperation.
The newly signed nuclear cooperation agreement represents one of the most significant developments in U.S.-Saudi relations in recent years and is expected to shape energy, security, and diplomatic ties between the two nations for decades to come.
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