Units of History The Frumentarii Assassins of Rome DOCUMENTARY

Deep within the heart of Rome lay the headquarters of one of the empire's most feared units. Shrouded in mystery, they seem to have begun as humble grain men and couriers. Yet as the tendrils of their reach grew, so too did their ability to covertly enact the will of the emperors. From enforcement and espionage to arrests and assassinations, they are often equated to the CIA or the Secret Service of Antiquity. Yet how much of this legendary reputation can we attribute to fact or fiction? To answer this question, let's explore the history of the Frumentarii. First, YouTube Premium cuts the ads. Second, YouTube Premium makes the experience much more enjoyable and flexible. Features like Background Play lets you play videos off-screen while you do other things on your phone or lock it in time. Smart Downloads lets you preload content for when you have no internet or poor data. And Continue Watching lets you transition between devices seamlessly. Third, you'll get access to the YouTube Music app for ad-free, offline, and in-the-background streaming. There's many more perks included, but one of the key concepts is that part of your monthly fee actually goes in to directly support channels like Invicta. So to give you a taste, we've actually worked with YouTube to offer a two-month free trial, which you can start today by checking out the description. And please, if you do subscribe, use our link as Invicta gets commissioned from this program. So anyways, try it out, enjoy, and I'll see you out there. The origin of the frumentarii is not well attested to. However, evidence points to them potentially emerging from two pre-existing army duties, the collection of grain and the collection of intelligence. We can tackle each in turn. With regards to the collection of grain, the association is quite evident given that the term frumentum in Latin literally translates to grain. Ancient military authors make frequent mention of such frumentum in their campaigns, both in its collection and distribution to the men. Tacitus labels the soldiers tasked with transporting this grain as frumentatores. Caesar's commentaries, meanwhile, explicitly label them as frumentarii. This would appear to be a clear connection to the frumentarii we are interested in. However, in such early years, the role seems to have been rather ad hoc and not quite as professionalized as their later incarnation. Yet, in the decades following the era of Caesar, it seems that the logistical apparatus behind the grain supply gradually matured. We know, for instance, that in Ostia, Rome's coastal port, a dedication was made by a centurio frumentarius to his superior officer, the prefect of the grain supply. Presumably, such men were part of the important organization established to ensure the masses of Rome received their all-important food supply. A similar logistical group was likely also embedded within each legion's provincial fortress to ensure that it too was fed. Evidence for this appears in the form of a handful of funerary inscriptions, where we see soldiers self-identify as the frumentarius of their legion for the care of the grain supply. Yet, the inner workings of these provisioning systems eludes us. What proves more confusing is that around the 2nd century AD, we see frumentarii agents being associated with another parallel collection system, that of intelligence. This apparatus arose from the connective tissue which had grown between the various legions, their local governor's offices, and the central imperial government in Rome. In terms of the legions, these had already evolved a system of professionalized military intelligence. For armies in the field, this ultimately took the form of a three-layered system which included the following. A close range of patrolling procuratories. A mid-range ring of scouting exploratories. And a far-reaching projection of spying speculatories. The existence of such units bred a talented pool of intelligence operatives with a robust set of standards and practices. While their reports and services would have been used by the legionary commander, much would eventually have filtered to the local governor, whose job it was to remain well-informed about his province and its surrounding area. Such legionary reports, combined with additional sources, would then have been compiled, synthesized, and shared up the chain of command to the powers in Rome. This was done via an efficient courier network known as the cursus publicus, which ran across virtually the entire breadth of the empire. Thus, it seems natural that over the years, this intelligence pipeline would gradually develop its own bureaucratic organization. As it did so, the frumentarii seemed to have become involved, as can be seen in funerary depictions, where we see intelligence agents riding atop the messenger carts of Rome's courier network. Ultimately, how these two origin stories, one of men collecting grain and one of men collecting intelligence, may have emerged or evolved into one another is unknown. Yet, the overlap between the two roles seems quite natural. After all, the status of the all-important grain supply was, in and of itself, a valuable piece of intelligence. It was also true that the people involved in its collection, the farmers, merchants, and sailors, would have had a pulse on the goings-on of the world. Thus, agents traveling back and forth across the empire to supervise grain logistics or to collect and carry information could easily perform both tasks at once. Evidence of this dual role appears in one of the earliest epigraphic records of the frumentarii. In a letter from an Egyptian archive dated to the early 2nd century AD, a man writes that he had sent a message, quote, which Sopronius Clemens, the frumentarius, will deliver. But, however the frumentarii came to be, from the 2nd century on, we have quite clear evidence that they were established as a distinct group of operatives with a base in Rome. Now let us take a look at their organization, headquarters, equipment, and service history. We can begin with their organization. According to various inscriptions, the frumentarii were apparently a collection of soldiers who had been detached from their legions to serve on this special assignment. The entire group, which numbered perhaps anywhere from a few dozen to a hundred or so men, was organized into a unit known as the Numerus Frumentarium. It was structured in the manner of a regular military force with junior officers, centurions, and an overall commander known as the Princeps Peregrinorum, or chief of the foreigners. From here, one could apparently use the position as a stepping stone to seek higher offices. As we shall see, close service to the emperors had its perks, and there may even have been a track leading from frumentarii to the vaunted ranks of the praetorians, as is hinted at by Cassius Dio, who attributes the rise of three praetorian prefects to their prior service among the frumentarii. Now let us explore the headquarters of this unit. Though the members of the Numerus Frumentarium, by necessity, were often dispersed across the empire, they nonetheless shared a central home back in Rome. Located atop the Caelian hill, it was known as the Castra Peregrina, or foreigner's camp. The headquarters appears to have been a facility in a similar manner as the more famous Castra Praetoria of the praetorians. As such, it boasted its own barracks, support structures, and a small shrine. Records facilities may have been present, but it does not seem that the Castra Peregrina functioned as any sort of grand repository for the secrets of Rome. Rather, it would have been the various archives and libraries which housed much of the written work stored in the capital. There was also the Ab Epistolis, or office of the procurator, in charge of imperial correspondence, which may have acted to process information. Yet for most of their history, these institutions were run by civil rather than military figures, with no mention of a connection to the operation of the frumentarii. Such a state of affairs dampens the idea that any sophisticated central intelligence operation existed in Rome. To the extent that any such apparatus had arisen, it would most likely have been found out in the provinces. After all, it was here that governors were kept up to speed with the latest news of their local area, with the task of acting as a first responder to any pressing matters, rather than waiting for directions from the distant emperors. Though of course, advice and permission was often sought out. To this end, a governor's headquarters boasted huge records facilities run by military staff officers of the officium. Perhaps the frumentarii, given their military rank, may have been counted among their number. Such an arrangement would have benefited the emperors who might get a second set of eyes on the activities of their underlings. But we shall cover these efforts in due time. For now, let's zoom in to get a better look at the members of the frumentarii up close. In terms of appearance, there may be a temptation to imagine them on two ends of a spectrum, either with ornate gear befitting their special role, or with extremely clandestine outfits in the manner of some undercover agent. However, what records we do have seem to indicate that the frumentarii were basically outfitted as regular soldiers. At times, this meant donning their full kit, but otherwise having the liberty to dress down for convenience. There are, however, some hints at identifying pieces of gear. For instance, men who used the courier service on imperial duty were identified by carrying a special lance, known as the beneficiarius. Perhaps this item made its way into the standard outfit of a frumentarii agent. Beyond this speculation, we can more confidently expect the usual gradation of distinguishing marks which accompanied the various ranks of the optios, the centurions, and the senior commanders. So, what did these frumentarii do? Unfortunately, we don't have a detailed record, but we can nonetheless sketch an outline based on some clues. This involves the following roles as grain supervisors, couriers, spies, assassins, and agents of law enforcement. Regarding the first two, these duties would have been continuations of the earlier tasks which predated their origin. The fact that such activities continued on when the frumentarii proper had been established is attested to by both textual and epigraphic records. For instance, in 210 AD, a centurion of the frumentarii is recorded as helping to coordinate the dredging of a harbour used to offload grain. In 238 AD, during a period of imperial transition, we are told that, quote, a letter sent to all the provinces by means of the frumentarii ordered that whoever gave assistance to Maximinus would be numbered among the enemy. While we previously mentioned that such grain and courier-related duties tied them to the location of an army, a governor's office, or key ports, it seems that there were also special assignments. One gravestone of an agent, for instance, lists his title not as the frumentarius of any legion, but as, quote, a frumentarius of the emperor stationed at Leon. Thus we see that they were increasingly being used as tools of the emperor. As such, there were certainly more creative ways one might use them. According to the Historia Augusta, for instance, Hadrian began to use them as domestic spies. The passage reads, quote, for he was inquisitive not only about his own household, but also about his friends, to the point of investigating their secrets through his frumentarii. By intercepting letters from a senator's wife, Hadrian was apparently able to learn of complaints about the man's indulgent habits in Rome. The ensuing reprimand caught the senator off guard, leaving him to wonder how he had been exposed. Similar stories of domestic spying are reported with regards to the emperors Macrinus and Gallienus. Frumentarii apparently also listened in at the games and theatres to hear what the public had to say. That this sort of operation took place is not surprising. After all, in days past, the senators of the republic had employed their own systems to spy on the businesses and households of their rivals. Naturally, the most powerful man in Rome did the same. But this need not only had been used to sniff out potential threats. Such information was generally useful for the proper management of the empire's human resources. Who might best be promoted, transferred, or demoted were all as important decisions to make as who might best be killed. Yet, this last option was not ruled out. Indeed, we have several links to the Frumentarii being used as assassins. During the reign of Commodus, for instance, Praetorian prefects had apparently wished to eliminate an individual and, quote, murdered him as he was returning to his estate by means of the Frumentarii. Other mentions of assassinations are a bit less explicit. In 195 AD, for example, we hear vaguely that some agents had been dispatched to Britain to assassinate the pretender Clodius Albinus. Their identity as Frumentarii is thus assumed rather than confirmed. Another intriguing story comes during the reign of Emperor Severus, when a certain centurion named Achilles, notorious as the assassin of senators, was sent by his enemies to kill the monarch. Contemporary writings, meanwhile, identify a man by the name of Marcus Achilles Felix, who was a centurion of the Frumentarii. Though it may be a coincidence, linking the two seems plausible. Ultimately, however, it is difficult to determine whether these sorts of assassinations were a standard service of the Frumentarii or rather a reflection of the desires of the powers in charge who wished to wield them as such. One might imagine that the out-in-the-open nature of the Frumentarii may have undermined their ability to act as spies or assassins. However, the very fact that they appeared to act as logistics officers and couriers may have deferred some suspicion. One might also imagine that on missions of subterfuge they were given enough resources and leeway to recruit others to help them. To this end, the use of deletores or informants may have been standard procedure. But such work in the shadows is unlikely to have been recorded and thus remains pure speculation. Finally, we must mention yet one more role which we see associated with the Frumentarii, that of law enforcer. This comes to us from scattered sources. An edict from the 3rd century AD, for example, records how the Frumentarii, quote, arrested nine, put them in chains, and sent them to the equestrian procurator. Such arrests are most commonly attested to in the era of Christian persecutions. The author Eusebius tells of one case where a Frumentarius was sent to hunt down a man by the name of Dionysius. The Christian reportedly hid away in his home for four days while the agent prowled the streets, rivers, and fields looking for him. In other writings, Saint Cyprian reports that he had to flee from Frumentarii sent to arrest him, while the disciple Paul was supervised by a Frumentarius while awaiting trial in Rome. Yet they were not uniquely seen as feared enforcers. Arrests and assistance in peacekeeping operations also could be appreciated. For example, inscriptions mention how Frumentarii were actually called upon in several instances to intervene on behalf of rural communities facing harassment from soldiers and other troublemakers. Beyond this, we have even more mentions of the odd jobs taken up by Frumentarii across the empire. One ran a prison in Anatolia, one supervised building activity in Delphi, and one raised emergency city walls in Salona. Thus we see how the Frumentarii were a quite flexible organization whose agents could be dispatched by the emperor or his governors to take on a range of roles on a quite ad hoc basis. Ultimately, however, it seems that this sort of runaway scope creep proved their undoing. By the end of the third century, they had begun to run rampant with a notorious reputation for trouble. The ancient author Aurelius Victor claims that, quote, they had apparently been set up to investigate and report on any potential rebellions in the provinces. And by their wicked concoction of accusations and by spreading fear everywhere, particularly in the most remote areas, they caused the most awful disruption to everything. The end result was that their organization would be disbanded by Diocletian. Yet the need for such a security and information service did not disappear. Thus it was that they would eventually be replaced by the more rigidly controlled and bureaucratized institutions of the late empire, such as that of the Agentes in Rebus. However, their story shall have to wait for another time. 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