4K畫質/高清畫質紀錄片 4K畫質紀錄片 人物誌 詹姆斯·麥迪遜 - 美國第四任總統

歷史上最著名的人 叫做詹姆斯·麥迪遜 於1751年3月16日出生 在貝爾谷農場附近的 Port Conway, 維吉尼亞 他的父親是詹姆斯·麥迪遜先生 是一名煙草種子 和皮埃蒂蒙特最大的土地主 當時他住的第一座農場 Mount Pleasant 他的母親是Nellie Conway 兩父母來自富裕的農場家庭 詹姆斯·麥迪遜先生 被稱之為詹姆斯·麥迪遜 在他出生的過程中 他深深地與維吉尼亞的 殖民政策有關 由一家非常親近的家庭 與維吉尼亞最高級的家庭 詹姆斯·麥迪遜的父親 在1653年來到維吉尼亞 然而在短短的幾年間 詹姆斯·麥迪遜的家庭 成為了富裕的家庭 他在維吉尼亞的 Piedmont區域 位於阿波羅山山的 在他年九歲的時候 詹姆斯·麥迪遜的家庭 移居到一個叫蒙佩利耶的 新家庭 被稱為Junior 對他親近的人而言 詹姆斯·麥迪遜有11個弟弟 他一生中 與他們相處得很親近 相信家庭 詹姆斯·麥迪遜的教師 John Witherspoon 這兩位法國教師 幫助詹姆斯·麥迪遜 發揮了讀書和學習的 這將會成為 詹姆斯·麥迪遜的人生的標誌 他對這些教師相處得很好 然而詹姆斯·麥迪遜 和其他地區的弟弟 詹姆斯·麥迪遜 在1774年 詹姆斯·麥迪遜 注意到 維吉尼亞的 宗教迫害 被當地的英國人 迫害 詹姆斯·麥迪遜 對此毫無承諾 稱之為 迫害的 邪惡的 他們應該得到 和他們的同胞 在大英國的同等權利 當英國政府官員 嘗試掌握大英國的殖民地 並強調他們的身份 緊張的情況越來越緊張 波士頓,那熱烈的 洋人和休息的地方 對英國領導人的 然而,不休和不滿 在大英國的海洋船 從加拿大到喬治亞 人們在質疑和討論 他們的地位在大英國 在此時,離開大英國的想法 仍然仍然在討論中 然而,不久後,兩黨開始 發展,並並同步 大英國的主要黨 合理地稱為維吉尼亞和 大英國的 維吉尼亞強調英國人的權利 必須適用於殖民地的 這些權利包括 在議會上的代表 身體代表 他們可以投票或 反對稅務 美國人不是反對稅務 但反對英國稅務 是一件原則的問題 他們相信他們也是 大英國的同等成員 並值得同樣的權利 被英國人的世代傳承 有些大英國人 反對他們需要身體代表 爭論 對於他們的想法 他們是大英國的一部分 其他大英國人和 他們的維吉尼亞朋友 達成了協議 他們認可 英國議會沒有 美國代表 但他們呼籲 美國人 更多的慎重 和耐心 James Madison 是一個很弱的維吉尼亞人 他雖然是個健碩的 小人物 但他的身高只有5'4 他堅持要保護 他的親愛的維吉尼亞 和其他殖民者 很多美國人 很擔心 議會或皇帝 會過於強大 取走人民的權利 在波士頓 維吉尼亞人決心 嚴厲反抗英國殖民 1773年 俄羅斯人 派了大量的茶 進港 這波士頓茶派 被英國人 欺凌 在波士頓 看到危險 想做個例子 議會通過了 不可靠的法律 強迫波士頓和 所有的殖民者 建立和投票給英國皇帝 而不是 強迫殖民者 法律反而 激怒了殖民者 對很多人來說 法律的酷刑 證明瞭 英國政府 完全不在乎 他們的權利 麥迪遜 與維吉尼亞人 也就被稱為 帝國人 進行了 英國軍人 正在嘗試 取得英國兵器 這場歷史性的 戰爭在 勒斯坦和康庫爾 燃起了整個 英國北美的殖民地 麥迪遜 很快地 反對英國 他在讀到 美國人的多次攻擊 1776年 麥迪遜和 其他維吉尼亞人 已經有足夠的帝國 他們組織了自己 為了獨立 然後在15月 維吉尼亞會議 一個在威廉斯堡 投票要求 國際會議 投票獨立 麥迪遜 成為會議成員 麥迪遜被邀請 簽署維吉尼亞的 《法律宣言》 麥迪遜和 約翰·梅森合作 一位50歲的代表 為了他的粗魯 簽署了文件 麥迪遜幫助 製造了一份修正案 說明所有人 都可以 依他們所願 只是幾年 麥迪遜不想 他的新政府 能夠拒絕 和妨礙宗教少數民族 經過幾次修正 修正案增加了 在之前的英國 統治地區 但是麥迪遜 在1777年輸掉了選舉 當地人想要一個 更友善和親切的領導人 特別是一個 在大會上提供 更有道德的 對選舉的方式 而他覺得 去盜竊是不公平的 他拒絕買一瓶啤酒 給當地人 這對他來說 但麥迪遜的寫作 和談判技巧 讓他成為維吾爾人 最受歡迎的人 他很快就回到 維吉尼亞的首都 在總統大會上 然後兩年後 在1779年 他被選為國際議會議員 在議會中 麥迪遜與 13個新的國家 最好的和最亮眼的 這些友誼和連結 他建立在 美國大革命的年代 會對他的發展 作為一個政治家 和談判家 他在這幾年中 是火熱的年輕人 託馬斯·傑弗森 作者《獨立聲明》 和維吉尼亞的 領導人 政治和國家建立 不是麥迪遜的唯一 在他成為議會議員時 而在1783年 麥迪遜愛上了 凱薩琳·凱蒂·佛羅裏 佛羅裏是紐約議會議員的女兒 她只有16歲 但在那些年代 這種姻緣並不稀罕 麥迪遜看到事情 發展得很好 直到7月份 佛羅裏將他們的姻緣拆除 為了結婚一名醫學學生 麥迪遜感到沮喪 對他的朋友託馬斯·傑弗森 悼念他失去的愛 託馬斯·傑弗森 最近失去自己的妻子 他對麥迪遜感到憐憫 並尋求他朋友的安慰 在他沮喪的愛情中 麥迪遜繼續 為自己的國家奉獻 麥迪遜在支持新政府時 他快速學會了 很多的短暫 在戰爭期間 政府的管治問題 新國家不斷受到 資金缺乏和稅務不足的影響 美國在1783年 沒有能力做任何事情 特別是增加稅務 對於一個年輕的國家 進入世界舞臺 在一個世界充滿了 強大的帝國 一個弱弱的中立政府 並不是新國家的自由 這也許是為什麼 麥迪遜建立了一段 勤奮的友誼 和一位年輕的律師 叫做亞歷山德·哈姆頓 哈姆頓現在有名 是因為林曼威爾·梅蘭德 電視劇《哈姆頓》 一位像麥迪遜一樣的年輕人 在美國大選中 他和麥迪遜合作 以解決各種 在國會上的問題 然而,即使他們一起工作 這兩位年輕人 卻不同的嘗試解決問題 哈姆頓支持了 一個強大的中立政府 而麥迪遜嘗試了 隨著時間的進一步改變 麥迪遜成為了一個協商家 哈姆頓成為了一個 強大的中立企業 這兩位年輕人的 早期經歷會激發 不可思議的合作 和競爭 麥迪遜和新加坡移民 在1783-1787年 在公眾辦公室工作 麥迪遜在1784年 成為了一名議員 麥迪遜在1784年 在1784年 在每一個小的危機中,年輕的美國似乎準備崩潰。 麥迪遜想要改變這一點。 他和其他領導人的思維是如何的? 麥迪遜努力地研究和準備自己對未來的辯論。 他研究了歷史書, 發給了他的Thomas Jefferson, 當時住在巴黎。 麥迪遜思考過去的聯邦, 或是脫離聯盟。 他變得更加確定, 為了生存, 國家需要一個強大的中央政府, 能夠管理困擾的國家。 但是1786年, 美國的緊張正在達到崩潰的地步。 脫離聯盟的論述, 遍佈全國。 謀劃暴力, 例如在馬來西亞的Shay's Rebellion, 把所有人都放在牆上。 麥迪遜是一個關鍵的組織, 在憲法會議上, 麥迪遜在14月5日到達菲律賓, 但是會議延誤到25日, 當其餘的參議員到達時。 麥迪遜準備好, 為了憲法會議, 提出了一個計劃, 為政府建構的計劃, 被稱為維吉尼亞計劃。 麥迪遜質疑, 聯邦應該被剝奪, 並被政府替代, 包括兩院立法會, 兩院立法會, 一位行政長官和一位法官。 計劃還強調了 有太多的政府權力的問題, 並將其轉移到 國家政府。 有些參議員開始懷疑 新政府會否否決 國家政府, 維吉尼亞計劃被熱烈抗議, 尤其是由小型國家的參議員。 六週內, 參議員與對方爭辯了 在現在的 獨立會議中。 參議員對他們的處境 非常瞭解, 知道他們正在尋求 重建美國政府, 因此不同的計劃 被提出和辯論。 參議員們逐漸 達成了協議。 麥迪遜想創造一個國家, 不僅僅是一個國家的聯邦, 他繼續爭辯 人民是政府的源頭, 而不是政府本身。 但他們必須裁決, 麥迪遜被懷疑 他的計劃被糾纏和 與小型國家仍然有利的計劃, 但他的維吉尼亞計劃 仍然非常有影響力 在最終結果中。 在9月份, 參議院通過了 新的美國憲法 讓國家被修正。 雖然參議員們並沒有 完全滿意最終結果, 但他們認為 這比共和黨的文章 具有新目標, 以防衛憲法 以確保它會被 13個國家的人民承認。 4個月後, 5個國家, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, 和 Connecticut, 承認了新的憲法。 然而, 最大的國家, 如維吉尼亞, 正在努力攻擊文件 並嘗試阻止修正。 麥迪遜很快加入了 在美國報紙中發生的 包括約翰遜和羅伯特·耶克斯, 一名紐約反共派議員。 這些辯論, 即將延伸到約翰遜和耶克斯之外, 被稱為共和黨報紙。 這些文章明確 和有信心地描述了新的 憲法政府的邏輯, 主要是由麥迪遜和約翰遜寫的。 麥迪遜的文章 成為了美國憲法 對麥迪遜來說, 這個新的工作, 作為一名報紙寫者, 是很困難的。 週末的激烈寫作 壓迫了年輕的美國人。 這些寫作可能幫助了 紐約形成的辯論, 但麥迪遜很快就到了維吉尼亞, 為了保持憲法存活。 在維吉尼亞, 抗爭是由 傳奇的帕特里克·亨利 和其他美國革命的領導人 領導的。 麥迪遜指出, 許多人都希望有憲法, 這是他們認為 對美國人的自由 在1788年, 麥迪遜去維吉尼亞的 維吉尼亞憲法會議, 在那裡, 他毫無遺憾地 在6月25日, 美國憲法在維吉尼亞 獲得了89-79的投票。 麥迪遜 經歷了所有的壓迫, 麥迪遜有另一項任務, 獲得了新會議的席位, 讓他能夠實現他的承諾, 並幫助指導新政府。 帕特里克·亨利確保 麥迪遜無法被選為議員。 當麥迪遜競選 代表會議, 亨利再次嘗試 讓麥迪遜離開新政府。 與前朋友 詹姆斯·蒙羅競選, 麥迪遜強調支持 修訂憲法。 他獲得了幾百票, 以此保證他 擁有新的美國政府席位。 喬治·華盛頓 在1789年3月30日 使用了他 幫助麥迪遜製造的地址。 新政府似乎正在運作。 麥迪遜擔任議員時, 麥迪遜並不是 浪漫或令人印象深刻的 在發表講話方面。 他寧願在幕後工作, 完成創造新國家的 麥迪遜從1789年 到1792年 是新政府最有影響力的 創新年。 麥迪遜在這段期間 學到了很多 麥迪遜是美國的 首席執政人員, 並將美國接近法國。 他,然而, 製造了敵人。 他與約翰·亞當斯 他幫助美國 移民, 從1797年 到1801年 擔任總統。 兩人成為了 惡劣的敵人, 並避免了彼此。 早期, 麥迪遜擔任總統時, 他努力取得 國安法。 麥迪遜認為 這些權利是自然的權利, 或來自天堂和神。 這些自然的權利 是英文傳統的, 他認為他們應該被美國政府保護。 麥迪遜的一些議案 無法獲得足夠的支持。 然而, 這10項議案 首先, 他提出了 宗教自由, 言論, 媒體, 集會和辯論的權利。 第二, 保護和握手的權利。 第三, 防止政府使用 民眾的家庭 作為士兵的城堡。 第四, 禁止不合理的搜索和監禁。 第五, 保護被譴責犯罪的人, 禁止雙重犯罪, 或被兩次起訴 同一罪行, 並無法獲得正確的補償。 他提出了 自身犯罪的權利, 法律的權利, 和法律程序的權利。 第六, 法律程序的權利。 第七, 法律程序的權利。 第八, 禁止過度的監禁和懲罰, 以及酷刑和不平等的懲罰。 第九, 不含數字的權利, 或不明確的 第十, 法律程序不明確的權利 是由國家和民眾的決定。 這些權利 從此成為美國法律 必須的標誌, 並成為了 世界各地的自由政府的模型。 沒有麥迪遜, 法律程序和它保護的自由 從未存在過。 有一位作者曾經說過, 如果麥迪遜不是 法律程序的父親, 成功有千個父親, 麥迪遜就是其後妻。 隨著這些成功, 麥迪遜被視為 美國代表會的領導人之一。 他的朋友,像華盛頓, 哈姆頓和傑弗遜, 是法律程序的領導人, 他們的轉變 離共和黨的文章 正在進行。 然而,並非所有領導人都走得順利。 當哈姆頓揭露了 他的計劃修復國家債務時, 麥迪遜從敵人 變成了敵人。 他提出的法律 與哈姆頓不同, 他反對接受哈姆頓的想法。 同時, 一場危機正在在國會中 在國會的位置上。 據託馬斯·傑弗遜說, 他在哈姆頓和麥迪遜之間 在華盛頓DC, 讓國會的位置 移到現場。 而哈姆頓的計劃 是在麥迪遜的攻擊 這解決了目前的問題, 但並沒有解決 麥迪遜和他的前夥伴 亞歷山德·哈姆頓的戰鬥。 這兩位政治領導人 是在國會銀行上。 哈姆頓想要改變 美國國家 成為更穩固 並成為國際信用者 可以投資他們的剩餘資源的地方。 哈姆頓想要美國成為一個國家。 他並不感興趣 將國家變成皇帝。 他也不是民主黨人。 他認為 大多數人不夠教育 或不夠自由 去負責政府。 哈姆頓想要模仿 英國帝國的領導人 在幾十年前 將富豪人的繁榮 結合在政府的繁榮之中, 以此理論上 幫助大眾。 麥迪遜不同意 像傑弗遜一樣 認為共和黨的力量 可以傳播給傑弗遜 這個獨立的人 而不是僅僅是領導人 他認為美國的 第一國際銀行 是不可行的 他的抗議是無效的 因為在1791年2月 國會通過銀行法 然後華盛頓 在聽到麥迪遜和哈姆頓 簽署了法案 這對傑弗遜和麥迪遜的 堅持有很大影響 麥迪遜變得 越來越不滿 華盛頓政府 尤其是華盛頓對 法國大革命的處理 麥迪遜和傑弗遜 是愛法國的人 雖然不像傑弗遜 對英國的仇恨 但麥迪遜對華盛頓 對英國在法國大革命 麥迪遜支持 革命的極端性 傑弗遜的攻擊 對華盛頓政府的支持 麥迪遜和傑弗遜 的攻擊對領導人 如哈姆頓、亞當斯 甚至華盛頓 導致國家政治 面臨糟糕的分裂 在全國 民主派和共和黨派 開始建立 民主派和共和黨派 麥迪遜拒絕相信 他正在介紹黨派 進入美國制度 他聲稱對方已經做了 然而,麥迪遜的攻擊 比亞當斯做的任何事 他的決定 關注黨派的建立 關注下層和中層 讓他和傑弗遜 在未來兩十年 華盛頓嘗試阻止 川普總統 麥迪遜和傑弗遜 嘗試拒絕川普總統 在1792年選舉中 更加憤怒了 民主派 然而,在法國 法國革命的事件 影響了 操縱和大規模的 法國人 儘管有千人 與英國人 同時有千人 反反覆覆 當民眾 正確 當民眾 正確 當民眾 Madison went to work seeking to undermine the president's position. When Madison's supporters began directing attacks at George Washington, the tides began to turn against him. Already, many Americans were nervous as French revolutionaries abandoned Christianity and continued the purges of France's enemies. Attacking the father of the country was one step too far. Madison and Jefferson, feeling the wrath of Americans, beat a hasty retreat, again supporting Washington publicly. However, the damage had already been done. Over the next few years, Madison continued to work with Thomas Jefferson to help their party regain support. However, in 1794, Madison had more pressing matters than national politics on his mind. In Philadelphia, the nation's capital, James Madison at age 43 met Dolly Payne Todd. Dolly was a widow, her husband having died in the yellow fever epidemic of 1793. Madison was introduced to Todd by one of his political allies, Aaron Burr. Madison was quickly smitten with the beautiful woman. Many of Madison's friends, including George Washington, showed excitement over the possible match. By August of 1794, Madison had won the heart of Dolly, and the two were married on the 15th of September, 1794. Dolly was happy and affectionate. An outgoing and flirty woman, Dolly loved the world into which James Madison brought her. Prior to her marriage, she had been a Quaker, but quickly adapted to the gaiety of Philadelphia, and later Virginian high life. The two would add a wing onto Madison's plantation Montpellier, which some today suggest looks like the combination of a Virginia plantation manor and a Philadelphia town home. She would remain a devoted and faithful companion to the shy and quiet statesman throughout his life. As Madison adapted to his role as a husband and father, Dolly had one child from her previous marriage. He also began to clash with his former idol George Washington more frequently. His first clash was over Jay's Treaty, a secret treaty signed by American diplomat John Jay with the British in November of 1794. The treaty was quickly signed by both the Senate and Washington, in part because they knew the treaty would be extremely unpopular. The treaty secured some victories for the Americans and helped ease tensions with Great Britain. But for many, the treaty did little but embarrass the nation. Initial resentment from the public began to shift, however, as Hamilton launched a brilliant PR campaign supporting Jay's Treaty. Madison and Jefferson were furious. When Madison's allies in the House attempted to confront Washington about the treaty, Washington dismissed their efforts. Now Madison felt he had to fight his friend. The results were not pretty. Washington ceased all interactions with his former friend. At 64 years old, Washington was unwilling to deal with those he viewed as backstabbers. Madison, unhappy at the results, was further saddened when his efforts to defund the treaty, or keep funds from making the treaty possible, failed. Madison's seven years in Congress had worn out the Virginian, and he was ready for a break. In 1796, Madison retired from Congress and headed back to his plantation in Virginia. His former friend, George Washington, also retired. In his farewell address, Washington took some parting shots at Madison and his colleagues, reminding Americans to avoid party politics and not become attached too much to foreign nations. However, the country was engulfed in its first contested presidential election. Adams and Jefferson faced off, with John Adams coming out the victor. James Madison had tried to help Jefferson obtain the victory. Now Jefferson was to be Adams' vice president. The two old friends, now enemies, were once again together. Madison encouraged the enmity, stoking the party politics as much as he could. He also refused to act as a minister to France, seeing an opportunity to allow the Federalist Party to sink itself. He wanted to watch their party collapse as much as any other Jeffersonian Republican. He would be content himself to stay in Virginia and take care of personal matters. Over the next few years, Madison continued to worry about the Federalists. Madison believed that his political enemies would doom the country and destroy everything the American Revolution had stood for. He saw evidence in the hostilities between France and the United States, as well as the passage of the Alien and Sedition Act, a law that targeted radical democratic elements in the United States. Madison and Jefferson both began to plan to combat the Federalist attempts to control the press and suppress their party's more radical supporters, and so they launched an offensive called the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. Penned secretly by Madison, written for Virginia, and Jefferson, who wrote for the legislature in Kentucky, these resolutions were to act as a rallying cry for the nation. The call of these resolutions was for the states to declare the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional. Madison was far more succinct and less fiery than Jefferson in his writing, but the point was made. The nation was on the edge of collapse. The nation's response was overwhelmingly negative, condemning the resolutions and their authors for threatening the American Republic. However, Federalist infighting left an opening for Madison and Jefferson, and they took it. Madison re-entered politics in 1799 by running and winning a seat in the Virginia Assembly. From his seat in the Virginia legislature, Madison continued to defend the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, while helping situate Jefferson for victory in the upcoming presidential election of 1800. The election was close, but Jefferson narrowly won. In 1801, Madison travelled to the nation's new capital in Washington, D.C., and began his service as Secretary of State. Madison enjoyed a close relationship with Jefferson and was his primary advisor during his presidency. With the Jeffersonian Republicans in power, much of the opposition to Madison came from within his own party, particularly those who felt wronged by Jefferson's right-hand man. Some were men who had sought patronage appointments, only to be turned away. Others were radicals who felt Madison was too conservative for the party. Madison did little to fight back against their verbal attacks. He was too focused on outside matters to be terribly concerned with intra-party fighting. France and Britain were still at war, but with the Jeffersonians in power, American policy flipped to now favour the French. Under Napoleon, however, France had emerged as a military superpower and had wrested control of Louisiana Territory from the Spanish. Madison went to work to convince the French the best option for them was to help the United States gain control of Florida and sell the Americans New Orleans. Napoleon was uninterested in listening. However, the disaster of Napoleon's invasion of Saint-Domingue, now known as Haiti, ended French efforts to reassert control in the New World. This led to a remarkable change of fortunes when the French sold the Americans the Louisiana Territory, a massive expanse of territory doubling the United States' size. For Madison, this was a perfect outcome and one which he believed would greatly impact future generations. At the start of Jefferson's second term, Madison focused much of his efforts on securing the Louisiana Purchase and acquiring Florida from Spain. Spain proved to be resistant to American threats and offers and was determined to hold on to their colony. However, far more threatening to the Jeffersonian administration was the British Empire, which was engaged in a war with France. In 1805, British officials began attacking American merchantmen to stop trade with France. Madison was frustrated by the British policy and attacked it with pamphlets and threats. But the situation took a drastic turn for the worse when Napoleon and the British began a trade war and forbade the United States from trading with each other by 1807. America was powerless in the face of the great powers because it had only a small navy and both Madison and Jefferson refused to get involved in a war. Instead, they decided to impose an embargo of Americans trading with France or Britain. Madison defended the policy which crippled the American economy with little repercussions for either Britain or France. While Jefferson retreated from the drop in popularity following the passage of the embargo, Madison doubled down on his position. He was determined to give no ground. However, the embargo sowed deep and bitter seeds throughout the nation, particularly in New England. In 1808, Madison began working to secure the nomination for the Democratic-Republican ticket to contest the up-and-coming presidential election and replace Jefferson as President of the United States. Madison's successes and his closeness with Jefferson proved to be a significant boon to his prospects. His chief party opponent, fellow Virginian James Monroe, was unable to secure enough major political allies to mount a successful campaign against his former friend, and after the Federalists' nominees performed terribly, Madison swept to victory and became the fourth President of the United States of America, after taking the oath of office on the 4th of March, 1809, with George Clinton becoming his Vice President. However, despite his victory, Madison found a strong opposition within his own party and among the Federalists. These two groups helped vote down the hated embargo, ending one of Jefferson and Madison's key attacks on the British. With the embargo of failure, Madison was now facing a world with two hostile and belligerent world powers, France and Great Britain, and as well as this, Madison's life in Washington was far from peaceful. While his wife Dolly set out to create a vibrant and glamorous environment in the nation's 80-year-old capital in Washington, D.C., Madison's enemies made his life difficult by constantly opposing him and fighting his decisions. While Madison faced enemies in Congress, he did achieve a significant victory when his administration annexed the western half of Spanish Florida. Florida had long been a prize Madison wanted to seize, and after American settlers moved there, Madison ordered an army to enter the territory, proving to his critics that he could act decisively in favor of the United States. This victory was tempered by the increasing hostility of Great Britain and their refusal to cooperate with the United States' decision to remain neutral. British officials sent to the United States further antagonized relations between the two states, leading many Americans to become more hostile to the British. Madison continued to hope that an embargo would produce the correct effects. However, most Americans were tired with fruitless economic sanctions that achieved little of the desired effect. In 1811, Madison reorganized his cabinet and brought in his former friend, once enemy, but now friend again, James Monroe. Monroe was seen as the perfect Virginian to succeed Madison, and Madison knew it. He also relieved various officials that he had come to dislike. Madison wanted a stronger cabinet, one that would help him fulfill his plans for the American Republic. This was desperately needed, as Madison's party was beginning to fracture as new younger Jeffersonian Republicans entered the national stage. Men like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun made their mark on the new Congress in the fall of 1811. These young senators and representatives saw in themselves the future of the new nation. While they respected the founders such as Madison, they also saw them as holding back the nation from its true potential and glory. Meanwhile, in New England, federalists were becoming increasingly disaffected with the administration. While still supportive of the United States, they were frustrated by the Madison administration's policies towards Great Britain, who they saw as a bulwark against Napoleonic France. Another challenge Madison faced was reigning in his own party, who had become increasingly hawkish on Great Britain. Britain, long antagonistic towards the Jeffersonian Republicans, had ignored all calls for negotiations. Furthermore, Native American wars on the frontiers of the American Republic were spurred on by British agents, who provided encouragement to the tribes resisting the conquest of their homelands by American forces. On the 1st of June, 1812, Madison sent a war message to Congress. After two and a half weeks of debate, both houses of Congress voted to go to war. Every Federalist voted no, but the Jeffersonian Republicans had the upper hand. Madison, however, presided over a dilapidated and pathetic army and navy. The Jeffersonian Republicans, over the past decade, had reduced the army and navy to mere shadows of their former selves. Declaring war on the strongest nation in Europe was bold and ambitious, if not a bit foolhardy. However, the Americans were committed, at least the Jeffersonian Republicans, and no power on earth was going to stop them. Perhaps Madison believed that Britain would not commit many resources to the conflict. France had recently invaded Russia and Britain's army was bogged down in Spain and Portugal. Madison even offered peace terms soon after the declaration of war. American forces soon were marching on Canada, which resulted in an absolute disaster. Unfortunate timing, inept commanders and logistical challenges, not to mention the poor quality of the soldiers, led to stinging defeats for the Americans. The only positives came from the successes of the U.S. Navy, which continued to defy the odds and win battles against British ships. And as the war dragged on, Madison was re-elected, but only through the support of the Pennsylvania and Jeffersonian Republicans. If not for their support, Madison would have lost the race. However, with his election secured, Madison continued to try to solve the problems of the U.S. military. While he had some success, the war was quickly breaking the fragile unity of the young nation. New Englanders hated the war and Federalists were beginning to contemplate a complete separation from the South. Then in late 1812, the war took a decidedly worse turn for the Americans, when Napoleon's invasion of Russia completely failed. With France now weakened, the British turned more of their attention to the war in America. Then in 1813, Madison was hit by a bilious fever, the fever threatened his life, and Madison was left bedridden for weeks. Critics and friends alike wondered if it was the end of the small Virginian. However, in August of 1813, Madison gradually began to recover. 1813 also brought some small victories on the Great Lakes for the Americans, the most famous being the victory on Lake Erie by Captain Oliver Perry. Several victories were also achieved by American generals against Native American forces. These victories would pave the way for settler expansion into Native American lands following the war. While Madison celebrated these victories, he was also desperately seeking to end the war, in part because Madison understood that Britain was stronger and better equipped than his American army. In 1814, Madison sent five men, including John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, to negotiate a treaty between Great Britain and the United States. When Napoleon abdicated in the spring of 1814, the British officials sent more troops to North America to crush the Americans. However, two years of war had hardened up the American troops, and along the Canadian frontier, a stalemate kept either side from achieving a significant victory, and any successes were offset by a devastating attack launched by the British on the Chesapeake Bay area. Madison had attempted to prepare for an assault. However, his poor choice in commanders, specifically William Winder, led to disastrous results when, on the 19th of August, 1814, British troops landed at Benedict, Maryland, only 35 miles south of Washington, D.C., and Madison's cabinet collapsed. Some felt Baltimore would be the logical next target. James Monroe began acting as a scout, and Madison rode out to the troops 8 miles south of the capital, and encouraged them on. Unlike in previous years, where the American militia had stalled British advances, the British marched leisurely towards Washington, D.C. After a short battle, later entitled the Bladensburg Races due to the flight of the American forces, the British marched into the capital. Retaliating for the American burning of York in Canada, now known as Toronto, the British burned the capital building and the White House. Madison and his family had safely evacuated, but now the capital was in ruins, and the British triumphant, seemingly poised to destroy the much larger and economically more important city of Baltimore. In September, the British moved against Baltimore, only to be repelled at Fort McHenry. It was a victory, but it rang hollow as the smoulders of Washington burned. Madison found, in the fall, a very deflated and frustrated Congress. The war was going poorly, and Madison's allies were doing little to make it any more popular. James Monroe advocated for a draft, something that was deeply unpopular in all regions of the country. In December 1814, New England Federalists gathered in Hartford, Connecticut, and discussed seceding from the United States. Though not taking that drastic step, the Federalists threatened to secede if their demands were not met. They petitioned for several constitutional amendments, seeking to curtail the power of the Jeffersonian Republicans. Madison, who had advocated similar ideas in the 1790s, when protesting Federalist power, was furious. However, Madison was saved by the fortuitous success of General Andrew Jackson, who decidedly outwitted the British in the small town of New Orleans. The battle swung American public opinion in favor of Madison, who learned of it around the same time that he received the Treaty of Ghent, a truce between the British and the Americans. With the war at an end, Madison was able to ignore the Federalists and rejoice with the rest of the nation. Observers stated that Madison was giddy and the life of the party following the end of the war. The rest of his two years in office were spent fortifying his legacy and preparing the nation for the next Virginian President, James Monroe. He saw his term as a success and was pleased with the turn of events following the war. For Madison, he believed that national honor had been saved and that the peace was a victory for the young nation. Madison looked to the future with optimism and hope, believing that the United States was on the brink of great success. Following his retirement from party politics, Madison returned to his plantation Montpellier. Madison, as one of the last of the founding generation, was an American icon. Visitors flocked to his home to see the former president. Madison was the last of the framers of the Constitution, and America, drifting towards the sectional conflicts of the Civil War, looked to him. Though not involved in national politics, he continued to give advice. He argued continually for the idea of American Union, something he saw as essential in order to preserve American liberty. He was terrified that soon the nation would devolve into war and break asunder, never to achieve its destined greatness. But while he remained an icon, he did experience troubles in perpetuating his farm, as prices dived and Virginian land lost value. Family problems also ate away at Madison's fortunes, leaving the man barely staving off bankruptcy. These financial troubles did not deter Madison from working on various projects, including writing opinions on Supreme Court rulings, and supporting the establishment of the University of Virginia. He also supported the American Colonization Society, a group established to emigrate free and enslaved African Americans back to Africa. Madison himself never mustered the courage to free his enslaved people. He hid from what he knew to be wrong. Madison's last hours were recorded by Paul Jennings, one of the men enslaved by James Madison. Jennings recalled the death of his enslaver several decades later. His recounting is surprisingly not angry or full of malice, just a simple recollection of what he saw the day that the father of the United States Constitution died. It was the 26th of June, 1838, only 23 years before the start of the American Civil War. Madison had been in his bed for nearly six months, unable to walk. On the morning of his death, he had trouble eating and his niece asked, 'What is the matter, Uncle James?' Madison simply said, 'Nothing more than a change of mind, my dear.' Jennings stated, 'His head instantly dropped,' and he ceased breathing as quietly as the snuff of a candle goes out. In the days following, Madison was taken to the grave, followed by an immense procession of both white and black Americans to bury the small man from Montpellier, Virginia, in the graveyard. Madison was an American founding father and one of the primary authors of the United States Constitution. He was a man whose life was tied closely to the formation and growth of a new United States and helped shape the United States on its course to become a global superpower. His death occasioned much sorrow in the United States. The last of the founders, Madison had truly made his mark on the United States. His decision-making had been key in state and national constitutional conventions. His dedication to liberty and the freedom of white Americans laid a precedent for future generations. While he struggled to envision a future where whites and blacks could live together in peace, his greatest work, the U.S. Constitution, was used by some abolitionists to justify the end of slavery. Madison, the short Virginian, lived a life immersed in politics and the creation of a new nation. His friends and enemies numbered amongst some of the most famous of America's founding generation, and his meticulous record-keeping allows historians today a glimpse into the past world of the founding fathers. Madison made his mark, and his mark has lasted until the present, the United States Constitution being a model for many other nations. Often overshadowed by other figures such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson or his old adversary John Adams, Madison has remained one of the most prominent founders of the United States of America. What do you think of James Madison? Does he deserve his reputation as a hero of the early American Republic, or was he a political operator bent on preserving his own class and status as a slaveholder? Please let us know in the comment section and in the meantime, thank you very much for watching. by bwd6