Richard vs. Saladin - The Battle of Arsuf, 1191

August 1191. The Third Crusade is well underway. The Christian army, under the leadership of King Richard the Lionheart of England, has just reconquered Acre, the most important port city in Palestine. This is a devastating defeat for Saladin, signaling a major reverse in the fortunes of his war effort against the Crusaders. With Acre restored, King Richard prepares to continue his advance. On August 22, Richard departs Acre and begins marching with his army down the Palestinian coast. His goal, Jaffa, a port city lying 70 miles south of Acre. Saladin knows he cannot allow Richard to reach Jaffa. The Sultan assembles his army, which contains roughly 25,000 cavalry. He prepares to attack and destroy Richard's forces before they can reach their goal. As the Crusaders advance down the coast, Richard uses his fleet to regularly supply his army. Richard's host contains about 1,200 knights and 10,000 infantry. The knights are organized into three divisions, marching in column. The Knights Templar lead the vanguard, while the Hospitallers hold the rearguard. The cavalry are protected on their left, landward flank by a powerful screen of infantry, which includes many crossbowmen. Saladin's servant and biographer, Baha ad-Din, records that these infantrymen are wearing full-length chain mail shirts, protecting them from Saladin's harassing horse archers. Richard rotates his entire infantry force so that half the men are allowed to rest at intervals on the seaward side of the cavalry. Richard's marching order is a model of high discipline. His army advances like an impenetrable fortress. Morale is high among his men, who deeply trust the Lionheart's leadership. Saladin, all the while, trails Richard's movements, using his light, swift cavalry and horse archers to harass the Christian column. But Richard's formation is unbreakable, and the Saracen horse archers inflict minimal damage. Baha ad-Din writes admiringly of the Christian crossbowmen, who show iron discipline, simultaneously marching while picking off Saladin's skirmishers. As the Crusaders advance, Saladin intensifies his attacks. The Saracen troops show great skill in their assaults, which are relentless, but Richard's forces are too well disposed. The Lionheart is aware of Saladin's dilemma. His plan is to continue to resist Saladin's attacks until the Sultan is forced to commit the bulk of his army to up-close harassment. Once that happens, Richard will unleash the full fury of the Knights in a devastating charge. Finally, on September 7th, Richard is nearing the town of Arsuf. Saladin has almost the whole of his army swarming the Christians. Richard knows that the moment for counterattack is drawing near. Saracen harassment is concentrated against the Knights Hospitaller in the rearguard. At this point, Saladin's attacks are becoming quite burdensome to the Hospitallers, who are losing many horses. The Hospitaller Grandmaster, Garnier of Nablus, asks the King to give the order to charge. What happens next is a matter of some debate. Traditionally, historians believe that the Hospitallers, unable to withstand any more harassment, begin the charge early. Richard, seeing what's happening, responds promptly by ordering a general charge. If this is the case, then Richard's quick action prevents disaster. For the Hospitallers, charging alone would have been separated from the main body of the army, and thereby easily surrounded and destroyed by Saladin's men. But today, historians are re-examining this issue, and many now believe that the charge of the Hospitallers was part of a coordinated process according to Richard's preordained command structure. Whatever the case, the result is the same. The Hospitallers begin the charge, and Richard follows it up by leading the Templars and the Anglo-Normans in a general charge. Saladin's army is caught completely off-guard. Many of the Turkish horse archers had dismounted in order to aim more accurately. In a solid wave of armored horsemen, the Crusaders smash Saladin's troops. Baha ad-Din leaves us a striking account of the action. Then their cavalry massed together and agreed on a charge. I saw them grouped together in the middle of the foot soldiers. They took their lances and gave a shout as one man. The infantry opened gaps for them, and they charged in unison along their whole line. One group charged our right wing, another our left, and the third our center. Our men gave way before them. The Gesta Regis Ricardi, another important primary source for the battle, describes Richard's personal valor in the fighting. King Richard pursued the Turks with singular ferocity, fell upon them, and scattered them across the ground. No one escaped when his sword made contact with them. Wherever he went, his brandished sword cleared a wide path on all sides. Richard regroups his cavalry, delivering a second, then a third charge. Each time more of Saladin's army is destroyed, the Christian infantry moves in behind their cavalry to kill off the enemy wounded or those Saracens scattering in desperate flight. By the time it's over, thousands of Saladin's warriors lay dead on the field. Richard and his men have won a decisive victory. Saladin retreats with the remnants of his army. The Sultan has suffered enormous casualties, losing at least half of his host. Richard's casualties, on the other hand, have been very light. One of the few Christian knights to fall was James of Avena, a northern French nobleman much beloved by the whole of the army. The Crusaders advance unimpeded to Jaffa, which they occupy, restore, and garrison. Richard now dominates the Palestinian coastal plain. This is a humiliating reverse for Saladin, who only a few years ago had been on the verge of wiping out the Crusader states. Now the Christians are regaining territory, and Richard has once again triumphed. Baha' ad-Din describes Saladin's devastation at his defeat. I was attending him, offering consolation, which, however, he was unable to accept. He was protected from the sun by a kerchief, and we asked him to take some food. Something light was brought to him, from which he took only a little. The Battle of Arsuf was a major turning point in the Third Crusade. Saladin's army was roughly twice as large as Richard's, and yet, the Crusaders achieved total victory. Richard's triumph reinforced the strength of his conquest, and shattered Saladin's reputation as the great destroyer of the Christians. The victory helped ensure Crusader domination of the coastal territory, from Tyre to Jaffa, and set the stage for the revival of the Christian states of Outremer.