How Did Carthage Raise its Mercenary Armies DOCUMENTARY

Carthage is famous for fielding vast armies of mercenaries studded with exotic units such as Balearic slingers, Numidian cavalry and towering war elephants. These are most famous for their clashes with Roman armies during the Punic Wars. Yet the spectacle of these battles often blinds us to the far more important machinery of war which placed them there in the first place. As the often cited adage goes, amateurs talk tactics, professionals study logistics. So today, let's seek to understand how to raise a Carthaginian army. Carthage's method of raising armies was hugely dependent on maintaining its cash reserves. Thus, economic downturns often resulted in military weakness. In our own times, there have been many echoes of this, in particular with 2023, the year of lost wealth, when it feels like the economic reality of many folks is going from bad to worse. The pain is widespread along the socioeconomic spectrum. 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Such men held sway over the population and would have called out a levy of citizens when the need arose to take part in military action. These forces would have been rather similar to their peers and thus were somewhat unremarkable. Indeed, what few records we have regarding this period hint that Carthage was but a minor power dominated by the neighbouring Libyans and other Phoenician cities. Within a century, however, it reached a population of 30,000 people with a bustling economy, rapid city development and a new set of walls. This trend would accelerate in the years that followed, when Tyre began to decline, leaving a power vacuum for Carthage to fill in the geopolitics of the West. This began locally at first, as the colony was able to reform itself into an oligarchic republic and begin to assert itself over its neighbours. During this period, more robust methods of military organisation were developed. A new leadership structure was adopted in keeping with the constitutional reforms, while the armed forces themselves were expanded as the wealth and size of the city-state grew. Records from this period indicate that they began to deploy a mixed force of infantry, cavalry and chariots, which still featured Punic citizens. However, as Carthage came to expand across North Africa and the islands of the Mediterranean, it would leverage these new subjects for military purposes. Often this was done by way of a treaty which required the commitment of men, materials and money in times of war. Over the generations, this practice was expanded to the point that the majority of Carthaginian armies were composed of such auxiliaries. Yet, during the Sicilian Wars of the 6th and 5th centuries BC, we still see the deployment of core Carthaginian units, such as the Sacred Band. However, when disaster struck, and these were lost in large numbers, it was said that the African city now vowed to never risk its precious citizenry again. Thus, Carthage once more evolved its armed forces. In this new model, the citizen infantrymen began to be phased out in favor of auxiliaries, allies and mercenaries funded by the deep Carthaginian coffers. By the 3rd century BC, this trend had accelerated to the point that Punic citizens primarily held positions as officers and generals. It is this multifaceted and multi-ethnic force which appears most vividly in the Punic Wars with Rome. But, while the history books focus on their battlefield prowess, let us now explore how they were raised and deployed in The engine of the Carthaginian war machine first began turning with the call to war. The reasons for war could vary immensely, be they defensive, offensive or imperialistic in nature. In the early period, when wars were decided mainly by kings, private parties or small groups of individuals, this was probably a relatively simple process. If a Carthaginian king or aristocrat wished to declare war, he simply raised an army and invaded, as the mythical Malkus probably did in the 6th century. Yet, while great wealth and personal power could be gained through such campaigns, it seems the leaders of the city tended to prefer making money through commercial ventures. Wars were therefore a means to this end, with expeditions being launched to enter new markets, establish monopolies and otherwise ensure that the money continued to flow. This often meant preserving the status quo. We see this most prominently in Sicily, where Carthage would often aid one side or the other to prevent a rising power from dominating the island. As the government of Carthage evolved over the years, so too did the way it went to war. For instance, during the Punic Wars, it would be the Carthaginian Senate that received Roman envoys, declared war and peace, and authorized the raising and deployment of military forces. However, the will of the Senate was not the end-all be-all on such matters. In many cases, proposals such as declarations of war had to be submitted to the popular assembly for ratification, either because the matter lacked unanimous consent within the Senate, or simply due to the nature of the proposal in question. Once a war had been approved, one or more positions would be opened for the role of general, or rabb mahamet. Candidates would be elected by the popular assembly. Their term of office had no limits and generals would serve for the duration of a war or until recalled. In theory, this meant that they could be more powerful than the generals of Rome. However, some key differences existed. The first was that, unlike in Rome, where the consuls had both civil and military authority, the role of general in Carthage was purely military and separated from civil duties. This in turn made a second key difference possible, that the Punic generals were subject to oversight and reprimand while in power. In fact, the prestigious court of 104 seems to have been the main body responsible for conducting trials, which might result in fines, dismissals, torture, and even crucifixions. While these two differences certainly helped provide accountability when it came to war-making, it also robbed Punic generals of the same factors which drove Rome's leaders to wage such aggressive and bull-headed campaigns that were sometimes necessary for victory. As the process of appointing generals and raising funds was taking place, official word of the freshly declared war would have to be spread. Most likely, this was done in the form of announcements and inscriptions posted in public places such as the forum, the temples, and the gatehouses. Given the multi-ethnic nature of Carthage's subjects, such pronouncements may have been made in a variety of languages. In any case, soon these messages would be spread far and wide across the roads and waves of the empire. Here, whispering merchants carried the news far more quickly than any official messengers ever could. Soon after a war had been declared, it would be time to muster the troops. At times, conscription might take place in Carthage itself. For instance, there are several historically attested cases of emergencies which called for the enlistment of citizen-soldiers to repel direct threats upon the city. Yet, under normal circumstances, it would be but a select few members of the elite who were called upon to serve as officers while the poorer citizens acted as rowers and sailors for the fleet. Meanwhile, the rank and file of the army would be filled out by foreign auxiliaries, allies, and mercenaries. The process for mustering each of these would have differed. When it came to the auxiliaries, most came from the North African communities of Phoenicians, Libyans, and Numidians. As we previously mentioned, each of these probably had its own agreement with Carthage which stipulated how much tribute and how many men they needed to send. When wartime arrived, Carthage's messengers would have come to collect in full. In terms of manpower, the Libyans took the brunt of the recruitment measures, and if the war continued, troops could be levied many times over. But overdrawing from this well could lead to resentment and even revolt. Therefore, the demands of manpower were often spread out. In this matter, the Numidians of the West were another staple of Punic recruiters. As semi-nomadic peoples, they had a strong cavalry tradition which produced the excellent Numidian cavalry. At times, their kingdoms and tribes were direct subjects of Carthage, which made it somewhat easier to extract such units of light cavalry and infantry from their communities. At other times, though, they were more loosely affiliated with Carthage, requiring a diplomatic touch and promises of loot and pay to answer the call to war. When it came to calling out allies, these were often picked up along the way to war. For instance, when the Barcid family made its plans to invade Spain and make war upon Rome, they moved their army along the African coast in what amounted to a massive recruitment drive that ended up summoning thousands of Numidians who would prove to be invaluable assets. Other times, allies would be met in the actual theatre of war, perhaps in the very days leading up to battle. This was often the case in Sicily when it came to raising coalition forces from among the scattered cities of Phoenicians, Greeks, Illymians, and Sicani. Finally, we can address the recruitment of mercenaries which formed a significant portion of Carthage's armies. The prospect of doing so might seem intimidating, but it turns out that mercenaries were actually quite numerous across the Mediterranean and had a way of coming out of the woodwork when a deep-pocketed empire came calling. In fact, Carthage enjoyed such a reputation among these merchants of war that many seem to have flocked to the city. Such soldiers often came in bands led by larger-than-life figures who could be contacted for their services or might show up as individuals. After having served in a war, these men would often come to live in and around the city, forming a reliable pool of mercenaries who could re-enlist themselves or pass on the torch to their sons. But the true power of mercenaries was unlocked by tapping into the greater web of fighters which existed across the wider Mediterranean. To reach these groups, Carthage likely sent out ambassadors and hiring officers to the city's favorite recruiting grounds. The success of such outreach was largely based on contacts and political, familial, or diplomatic relationships. For instance, the government of Carthage might rely on a particular senator with connections to a Spartan king to recruit Peloponnesian mercenaries or might lean upon the Barquid family for its connection to the tribes of Iberia. In this way, Carthage was able to recruit mercenaries from places like Spain, Sicily, Gaul, Italy, Sardinia, and other far-off places. From the Balearics, they recruited slingers who they supposedly paid in wine and enslaved women. From Spain came swordsmen and from Sicily, Magna Graecia, and Greece came hoplites. But once contacted, how did one actually get these men to fight? This was done by way of contracts, either with the individual mercenary or more likely their leader. Their terms of service would have been negotiated with a Carthaginian hiring officer, paymaster, or general. The most important point of discussion would have been their mistos, or wage, as well as compensation for food and travel expenses. It seems that Carthage's first coinage, minted around 410, was stamped with signatures indicating its use for paying the mercenaries and soldiers of the army. These might be doled out over time, but often a lump sum was up front. Thus, huge quantities of money were needed to raise these sorts of mercenary heavy armies. To this end, the Carthaginians levied taxes, confiscated property, or exploited resources within their trade network. For instance, Diodorus says that the Carthaginians relied heavily upon their Spanish silver mines for funding. In times of war, looting provided another source of revenue to sustain an army. During a dry spell, payment might be withheld, but if this went on for too long, a mercenary host could simply walk away or might even turn against its former master. Thus far we have focused on the army, but it was the navy which was the true pride and jewel of the Punic military. Carthage's shipyards were first-rate, especially the massive military harbour known as the Cothon. At the onset of war, the shipyards would have quickly filled with vessels being built and retrofitted. For this, timber needed to be cut, metal working done, rams made, sails sewn, and other parts created. All these processes required immense amounts of manpower. The Carthaginians became so proficient at the art of shipbuilding that they even began to mass-produce ships in a proto-assembly-line system. A fleet once assembled consumed large amounts of manpower and money. Her ships, of which there were hundreds at times, were probably manned by the poorer citizens and islanders who were paid a wage like in Greece. We know little of how Carthage called sailors to arms, but we do know that occasionally mercenaries also served on ships as marines. In fact, a number of Gallic mercenary helmets were discovered in a shipwreck dating to the Punic Wars. There is good evidence as well that Carthage employed privateers in her army, and perhaps a call went out to any willing pirate captains at the same time as the call for mercenaries. Under such measures, costs for maintaining the Carthaginian navy could easily skyrocket. But these were all warships, not suited for ferrying soldiers over long distances. Therefore, Carthage still needed to employ huge numbers of civilian ships as transports to carry armies and supplies across the Mediterranean and to their war zones. A final element to now mention would be these materials of war. To this end, the manufacturing districts of Carthage could be tapped to produce vast quantities of weapons and arms. Gear might also be imported from important centers across the Mediterranean. To give you a sense of scale, records from the Third Punic War attest to the city's stockpile of over 200,000 sets of armor and 2,000 catapults. But such gear would not have been enough. Further equipment for supply and mobilization was needed, such as spares, wagons, rope, and more. Thus, with the onset of war would have come the smoke, fires, sounds, and toils of the Carthaginian industrial complex waking from its slumber. Finally, with the fleet, army, and materials mustered, it would be time to deploy them for war. If the war zone was close, such as in Libya or Numidia, getting there might be as simple as marching the troops to the front lines. However, wars fought overseas would require more complex logistics. Carthage certainly had a navy capable of ferrying large forces, but doing so could be a risky endeavor when faced with the threat of enemy fleets or the risk of storms. Thus, the safest method of deploying armies abroad would be a gradual process. Here, transport ships could be properly escorted in the most optimal weather conditions and slowly amassed in strongholds within the theater of war, with strong walls and defensive harbors. In Sicily, the important city of Lilibeum was one such operational base. Yet not all deployments were so ideal. Many times we see that Carthage had to deploy its forces in one massive convoy, which sometimes landed upon the very doorstep of the enemy. A great example of this is the Battle of Himera, where the Punic commander Hanno beached and fortified his ships into a makeshift camp from which to begin a siege. Doing so might be expedient, but such a landing left any army extremely vulnerable. Thankfully, the supremacy of the Carthaginian navy allowed it to rule the seas and often get away with such maneuvers. But the benefits of naval power did not stop there. Fleets could not only drop off troops wherever and whenever they pleased, but could also launch raids, interrupt supply lines and establish blockades. Stepping back, one can now hopefully appreciate the impressive logistics behind Carthage's massive combined arms approach to warfare, which few could match. It was a fascinating system, which I hope provides you with a greater appreciation for their often overlooked military and civilization.