What did Ancient Indian cities ACTUALLY look like？

Indian history has a big problem. Its cities are faceless, shapeless. If I talk about ancient Rome, your imagination will construct marble columns and cobblestone facades, wine bars and togas. In a sense, you can see it. Good for Rome, but what about India? What did ancient Indian cities actually look like and how did people live? Thus far, popular media has done a poor job showing it. Well, that's about to change right now. Today, we're gonna reconstruct a hypothetical ancient Indian city from scratch using both archeological evidence and the written record as a guide. But first, let's address the elephant in the room. Where have all the ruins gone? Not just temples and forts, but structures that define the everyday lives of normal citizens. Houses, taverns, docks, libraries, hospitals, markets. These are the structures that can help us envision India's bustling ancient cities. So why has most of it just disappeared? Though the most dramatic explanations center on invasions, fire and plunder and other atrocities, they don't tell the full story. The lack of ruins can actually be blamed on two main culprits, perishable materials and repurposed materials. Throughout Indian history, wood, mud brick and stucco were used to build everything from arenas to houses and markets, many of which were beautifully carved, tiled and painted. But these materials are vulnerable to the elements. If not properly maintained, they will rot and decay and collapse. And in the event of a fire, they will burn. These structures almost never survived for more than a few centuries, leaving us with nothing but a few stone ruins surrounded by empty plots of land. That being said, even stone buildings were destroyed so that the materials could be reused elsewhere. After a period of political upheaval, entire cities might be torn down. The stone repurposed for new buildings, ruins cleared to make room for pastures and unused infrastructure turned into quarries. Temples and other religious structures were the few to avoid this removal reuse paradigm. But this gives us an incomplete picture because most of what we see today are ancient temples and monasteries. We tend to paint Indians as a one-dimensional spiritual people. Got all that context? It's time to build an ancient Indian city from the ground up. With help from our team of architectural historians, we've put together a blueprint for the sort of Indian megacity that would have existed between 500 BCE and 500 CE, an era of intense urbanization. Let's name our city Compassport. So here's what we need to build for our ancient Indian population. We're gonna have to build all of that. Let's jump right in. First things first, we need toilet facilities because when you gotta go, you gotta go. Based on the archeological evidence, we know that ancient Indian toilets were rather sophisticated in their design and construction. Toilets were built into shallow pits lined with terracotta, brick, or stone, and the waste was disposed of through channels connected to the citywide sewage and drainage system. In fact, the sewage and drainage systems in ancient Indian cities were among the most advanced of their time. Primary sewage and drainage lines were made from brick and stone and ran along the main streets. These were connected to the smaller lines that carried waste away from individual houses. Sewage and drainage lines were sloped to facilitate the flow of waste and were covered by stone slabs to minimize bad odors. That's right, no open sewers. In larger cities, sewage and drainage systems were connected to rivers or other water bodies where waste would be washed away and diluted. Since pollution and contamination were to be avoided, city officials implemented restrictions on excessive waste disposal. But home toilets were just one solution. Public toilets were placed strategically throughout the city, particularly in market areas and near public buildings. Bathing was also an essential part of daily life. Private homes often included rooms equipped with square bathing platforms made of stone or terracotta. These platforms were slightly raised with a gentle slope leading towards a drain which was connected to the citywide sewage and drainage system. Public baths were an important feature of ancient Indian cities too. These elaborate bathing complexes were made from bricks or stone slabs that were plastered over to prevent water seepage. Some of these bathing complexes had different sections for men and women and different sections for hot and cold water, among other conveniences. These public baths were often built in gymnasiums or near social gathering spots, such as parks and step wells, and were maintained by city authorities or even local merchant guilds. That's hogwash, you say. Garbage. No, this is garbage. And cities have a lot of it. So how did ancient Indians dispose of all their garbage? Indian cities developed detailed guidelines for maintaining cleanliness. Most importantly, they appointed officials who ensured that waste did not accumulate in living areas and public spaces. Garbage was collected in designated areas throughout the city and was then transported to the outskirts. There, it would be composted and turned into fertilizer, burned, or buried. For example, excavations have revealed the existence of large brick-lined pits used as garbage dumps. Day-to-day cleanliness was maintained by public sanitation workers tasked with sweeping streets and removing waste at regular intervals. Regular citizens too were expected to maintain cleanliness around their living and working areas. Failure to abide by these standards would result in fines. Let's get wet. Access to clean and abundant water is a priority in city building. So it was in India too. To supplement natural sources of water, wells were dug throughout ancient Indian cities. These wells were usually communal and were meant to serve multiple households. That being said, private wells were often built inside larger homes, and sophisticated pulley systems were used to draw water. Water storage, on the other hand, was accomplished through the use of large tanks, reservoirs, and step wells. These storage facilities collected and stored rainwater, ensuring a steady supply for the city, even during dry periods. Step wells are particularly noteworthy. Steps leading down to the water allowed for easy access even as water levels fluctuated. But step wells were not just for water storage and distribution. Elaborately decorated, step wells were designed to serve as multipurpose community structures, as beautiful shaded rest areas for the public to gather, relax, and play. These various water storage facilities were connected to an intricate network of terracotta pipelines, aqueducts, and canals to distribute water throughout the city. Public fountains and spouts were placed at key points throughout the city so that people could draw water as needed. These water access points were often decorated with carvings and were strategically located in marketplaces, near temples, and along major streets. As for the water itself, measures were taken to ensure its purity. Boiling water before drinking was common practice. Additionally, natural filters, such as cloth and sand, were used to remove impurities. Houses and neighborhoods. What were neighborhoods like in ancient India? Residential layouts were influenced by texts like the Manasara and the Vastu Shastra, which provided guidelines on architecture, town planning, and spatial arrangement. Megasthenes, a Greek diplomat who lived in the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra, described the city's neighborhoods as well-planned, with orderly rows of houses, broad streets, and distinct quarters for different social groups, suggesting a highly organized administrative structure. Neighborhood bonds were reinforced by public spaces, such as gymnasiums, baths, small temples, courtyards, gardens, and meeting halls. And these spaces were typically built at central intersections to improve accessibility. That's all very cool, but housing forms the core of a neighborhood. So what did these ancient Indian houses actually look like? Materials and designs varied considerably. In drier inland regions, houses were generally built with stone or brick and had flat roofs and plastered over walls. Meanwhile, in lush coastal regions, houses were built with wood, bamboo, and terracotta and had sloping roofs to facilitate rainwater drainage. Designs ranged from simple, single-room dwellings to more elaborate, multi-story structures. The most common type was the courtyard house, and it's a design that remains popular in India As per the design, the central courtyard ensured that there was light, ventilation, and a space for domestic activities. Rooms were arranged around this central courtyard with private rooms located towards the back of the house and reception areas located towards the entrance. In wealthier households, there would be multiple stories and multiple courtyards, and these would be adorned with plants, fountains, and sculptures. The interior walls were elaborately decorated with murals, carvings, and intricate woodwork detailing. Side note, it's important to reiterate that ancient Indian cities were not flat. In fact, they were full of multi-story structures, houses included. Fortunately for the people of Kampaspur, ancient Indian cities were thriving hubs of entertainment. Theaters were typically located near the city center or the royal palace and adhered to principles outlined in texts like the Natyashastra, which provided detailed guidance on stage dimensions, acoustics, and seating. Theaters had a raised stage, with a backdrop for actors to change costumes, and seating was arranged in a semicircular or rectangular pattern around the stage, allowing the audience to have a clear view of the performance. Larger theaters could accommodate several thousand spectators at once. Looking to spend quality time with beautiful people? Indian cities were built with specialized red light districts for adult entertainment. These districts were situated near marketplaces or along busy thoroughfares and were marked by elaborate gateways. Red light districts were vibrant nightlife hubs and featured taverns, gambling houses, and other venues for adult entertainment. They also included well-constructed homes and salons where courtesans entertained their guests. Courtesan spaces were designed to provide an elegant and inviting environment. For example, salons featured spacious reception rooms, courtyards, and private chambers, and were adorned with luxurious furnishings, artworks, and musical instruments. Sports were an essential pillar of entertainment in ancient India. Fighting pits were among the most common arenas. They were essentially leveled grounds where wrestlers and boxers could compete, and this area was surrounded by raised platforms and terrace stands for spectators. Meanwhile, chariot races and horse races were held on purpose-built tracks, similar to the hippodromes of the Greco-Roman world. The tracks were often encircled by low walls to keep spectators safe. Cities were also dotted with gymnasiums. Facilities included training equipment, bathing areas, and open courtyards for sporting activities. But gymnasiums were not just for physical training. They were social hubs where men gathered to discuss everything from philosophy to politics. Truly great cities are designed with public spaces in mind. Ancient India was no exception. Town squares were central to the social and commercial life of ancient Indian cities. They were located at the crossroads of major streets and served as focal points for public gatherings and activities. Smart design enhanced these aspects. Town squares were open and spacious, paved with stone, and were adorned with pillars, statues, and gateways for both decorative and symbolic purposes, and trees were planted to provide shade. Importantly, town squares were multifunctional spaces. Certain sections might be reserved for public meetings and performances, while other sections were designated as pop-up marketplaces with a variety of stalls. The bustling atmosphere of these spaces made them popular social hubs. People from different walks of life would gather to trade, gossip, and discuss the news of the day. Public parks and gardens were common features in ancient Indian cities, providing an additional space for relaxation, exercise, and socializing. They were also venues for community events, such as fairs and festivals. These spaces were meticulously maintained and incorporated a variety of elements. Benches, pavilions, elaborately carved fountains, manicured lawns, groves of trees, flowering plants, shaded walkways, ponds, and lakes. Foreign visitors to India were extremely impressed. In his writings, the Chinese monk Xuanzang gushed about how scholars would go for strolls and engage in discussions amidst the well-maintained greenery. Markets and commerce. Urban markets were central to the economic life of ancient Indian cities. Markets were housed in large open-air courtyards surrounded by a dense thicket of shops and stalls made of wood primarily, and the ground was paved to accommodate heavy foot traffic. Interestingly, markets were often walled and gated, with guards stationed at the exits to provide security and collect tolls. Different areas were designated for different goods. The atmosphere of these ancient markets was lively, haggling was common, and the air filled with the sound of merchants calling out to customers and the clatter of goods being exchanged. And in the event of a dispute, the parties involved could use one of the special courts established within or near marketplaces. Beyond markets, ancient Indian cities had specialized commercial districts for certain trades and industries. For example, there would be zones for pottery, metalwork, and textile production. These specialized districts featured rows and rows of workshops and warehouses where artisans produced and stored their goods, respectively. And the presence of decorative motifs on doorways and windows suggests that, even in these industrial areas, aesthetics were not entirely neglected. Commercial districts were often managed by guilds, which also played a significant role in regulating trade and maintaining quality standards. The physical presence of guild halls underscores their importance. The earliest references to healthcare facilities come from Buddhist sources, which mention the establishment of hospitals funded by rulers and wealthy patrons. Hospitals were designed with multiple wards, each catering to different types of ailments. For example, we know that there were separate wards for surgical cases, infectious diseases, and general care. These buildings typically included open courtyards, shaded verandas, and well-ventilated rooms. Notably, hospitals in ancient India served as training centers for medical students so that they could gain hands-on experience under the supervision of older physicians. But there were also smaller healthcare centers for minor ailments. Clinics and herbal dispensaries offered outpatient care. These clinics were run by practitioners who were trained in different branches of Ayurvedic medicine. More specialized medical facilities existed, too. For example, surgical centers were established in larger cities. The famous ancient Indian physician, Sushruta, often called the father of surgery, described the procedures performed at these centers, which included cataract surgery, rhinoplasty, and orthopedic surgery. Worth noting, free medical care was extended to all citizens. Interestingly, Megasthenes found it odd that Indians had access to medical care regardless of their wealth or status, which was unlike anything he had seen in his Greek homeland. By the late Vedic period, large-scale educational institutions began to emerge in India's urban centers, sometimes attached to religious complexes, sometimes not. Based off student registration records, we know that universities like Takshila and Nalanda attracted students from across India, Central Asia, China, and Southeast Asia. Universities were not organized in a single building but were instead a collection of colleges and schools spread across the city, each specialized in certain fields of study, such as medicine, law, mathematics, military science, and the arts. University structures included large lecture halls, libraries, and even residential quarters for students and teachers. In addition to formal educational institutions, ancient Indian cities had public libraries and informal centers of learning. These libraries were often attached to temples, palaces, or other significant buildings and were accessible to both scholars and the general public. Public libraries were housed in large, well-ventilated buildings with environments carefully designed to preserve the collection of palm leaf and bark manuscripts. The interior structure included reading rooms as well as open spaces for group discussions and lectures. Government buildings. In ancient India, palaces were more than just royal hangouts. They were hubs of government, abuzz with state business. Indian palaces were architectural marvels. In Pataliputra, for example, the main palace was made of polished wood and was decorated with carvings and inlays of gold and precious stones. Grand entrances, large courtyards, and impressive gateways reinforced royal authority. Palace complexes were expansive, comprising several buildings, among them the king's private quarters and administrative offices, the treasury, and the assembly hall, which was a venue for council meetings and other official gatherings. Most importantly, the palace complex housed royal courts with judges presiding over both civil and criminal disputes. But palace complexes were not the only source of governance. Administrative offices dotted the landscape of Indian cities. There, the day-to-day operations of the state were managed, from tax collection to trade regulation. Archaeological evidence suggests that these office buildings were built with brick and stone and features storage areas for sensitive documents, as well as spacious halls for conducting official business. Between 500 BCE and 500 CE, cities across the subcontinent saw the construction of numerous temples, stupas, monasteries, and other religious structures for its various faiths. These were not just places of worship. They were vibrant centers of community life and education. Each religious complex involved its own unique layout, with decorative towers, shrines, ritual halls, courtyards, and walking paths. That being said, certain aspects of the design had shared elements. For example, these structures usually had intricate carvings depicting mythological events relevant to the faith. The construction of a religious complex was a major civic project, often supported by kings and merchants, and there were significant economic benefits in doing so. These religious complexes became landholders, attracted trade, employed thousands, and earned revenue through donations. Tired of eating at home? You're in luck. Kampaspur has a thriving F&B scene. Based on the historical record, we know that major cities had taverns and restaurants serving a variety of foods and alcoholic drinks, from local specialties to imported delicacies from around India and the world. Archaeologists have discovered communal dining areas and kitchen spaces, indicating the presence of large cafeteria-style eateries for the public. Most often, layouts included an open-front design, low tables, cushions, and group seating arrangements. These venues not only served food, but also acted as social hubs for people of the city. Food and beverage establishments were typically located near marketplaces, in entertainment districts, and along other busy thoroughfares. And if you're coming into the city as a visitor? In major Indian cities, there were rest houses situated near the main gates, meant to provide shelter for merchants, pilgrims, and other visitors. These rest houses were equipped with basic amenities, from dormitory beds to communal dining and bathing facilities. The buildings also had central courtyards where travelers could socialize. The Chinese monk Fa Hien described these rest houses as well-maintained, and observed that they were usually funded by the state or private patrons. Transportation. In ancient India, roadways were not mere dirt paths, but were caved with stones or gravel, and were designed to endure heavy traffic and harsh weather conditions. Major streets were wide and well-maintained, and according to Megasthenes, there were many chariots and carts using the throughway, indicating that they were suitable for various types of vehicles. We've built Kampaspur into a prosperous Indian megacity, but that also makes it a target for greedy conquerors. So let's implement defensive measures. First, the fortifications. These would include massive walls, moats, and fortified gates. Generally speaking, fortifications incorporated thick high walls made from either stone or brick. These walls were reinforced with bastions, which provided vantage points for archers to dispense with approaching armies. Multiple layers of defense were emphasized, so there were both outer and inner walls. Gates were heavily fortified, with doors made of iron or reinforced wood, and adorned with spikes to prevent elephants from battering them down. The entryways were designed to be narrow so that only a few people could pass through at any time. This made it easier for defenders to repel invaders. Some gates were even built with trap mechanisms, such as spike pits and concealed archers, to neutralize attackers who managed to breach the outer defenses. Fun fact, hidden passages and tunnels were also built to allow counterattacks or an escape if the situation were to become too dire. Within the city walls, military garrisons and watchtowers played a crucial role in maintaining security. Garrison troops were stationed at strategic points throughout the city, and watchtowers provided high vantage points for monitoring threats on the city streets and in areas beyond the city walls. Policing and emergency services. In ancient Indian cities, government law enforcement officers were responsible for maintaining order. They were tasked with patrolling urban areas, investigating crimes, and ensuring public safety. And to better execute their duties, they often worked alongside local guilds and community leaders. Now, to ensure that Compassport doesn't burn down, we need firefighters, especially since many of our structures are built with flammable materials like wood. Texts like the Arthashasra mention the presence of fire brigades equipped with water buckets, wet blankets, and sand, and public wells were strategically placed for immediate access during a fire. So there you go, an ancient Indian city built from scratch. And now you know.