Why Embracing Chaos Will Save Us - Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy (Summary Audiobook)

The Birth of Tragedy Out of the Spirit of Music is an early work by Friedrich Nietzsche. It was published in 1872, and it details the influence of two complementary forces on the development of human culture – that of order, epitomised by science, and that of chaos, epitomised by music. During his early years, Nietzsche was profoundly influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy and Richard Wagner's music. These influences are clearly evident in The Birth of Tragedy. However, in his later years, he came to view the work as somewhat anachronistic, though he remained loyal to the central claim that the optimism of the scientific spirit conceals a subtle decline of culture, while the tragic artistic spirit is necessary to oppose this decline. We proceed now with a simplified abridgment of the text. The evolution of art is intrinsically linked to the duality of the Apollonian and Dionysian, akin to the interplay of the sexes in procreation. The Greeks illuminated this dichotomy through their deities, revealing a profound contrast between the plastic art of the shaper, the Apollonian, and the non-plastic art of music, the Dionysian. These opposing forces, while often at odds, inspire each other, culminating in the synthesis of Greek tragedy. The dream world, akin to artistic creation, reflects deeper truths, allowing us to navigate life's complexities. Apollo embodies the balance of beauty and philosophical calm, representing the essence of individual existence amidst chaos. He is how Schopenhauer describes the man wrapped up in illusion. He is an image of the principle of individuation. In Schopenhauer's work, we also see how the awe that grips humanity when the principle of reason falters reveals the Dionysian essence. This ecstatic state, akin to drunkenness, dissolves individuality, fostering unity among people and nature. The Dionysian spirit revives connections as estranged nature reconciles with humanity, offering its gifts. In this cosmic harmony, barriers dissolve, and individuals feel one with each other and the universe. Man transcends artistry, becoming a living work of art, embodying the divine. The Dionysian experience reveals the profound interconnectedness of existence, urging us to recognise the creator within ourselves and the world. The Apollonian and Dionysian are primal artistic forces emerging directly from nature. The Apollonian represents the dreamlike, while the Dionysian embodies ecstatic unity, dissolving individuality. Artists can be either Apollonian, Dionysian, or a blend. The Greeks exemplified these art impulses, achieving a unique balance between the two. While Dionysian festivals existed across cultures, the Greeks maintained a protective distance from their chaotic excesses through Apollo's influence. However, as Dionysian impulses emerged from within, a reconciliation occurred, marking a pivotal moment in Greek culture. This fusion transformed Dionysian festivals into celebrations of redemption, where pain and joy coexisted. The music of these festivals evolved into a powerful expression of unity and nature's essence, revealing a deeper connection to the primal forces that underpin existence. The Apollonian Greek, witnessing this, felt both awe and a haunting recognition of his own hidden Dionysian nature. To understand the essence of Apollonian culture, we must dismantle its artistic structure, revealing its foundations. The Olympian gods, including Apollo, embody a collective impulse that celebrates life devoid of asceticism or moral elevation. Those seeking spiritual solace among them will find only exuberance and triumph. The ancient tale of Silenus, the teacher of Dionysus, expresses that the best thing for humanity is to not exist at all, with the second best thing being a swift death. The Greeks, aware of life's terrors, created the Olympian world to shield themselves from despair. This transformation from the Titan Thearchy of Fear to the joyful Olympian deities allowed them to endure existence. The gods justify human life by living it themselves, presenting existence as inherently desirable. The harmony sought by modern man is not a simple outcome, but a triumph over suffering, as exemplified by Homer, whose naivety reflects the Apollonian illusion and the Greeks' desire for beauty and glory. The analogy of dreams illuminates the nature of the naive artist. In dreams, the dreamer may acknowledge the illusion, yet chooses to continue dreaming, revealing a profound joy in this contemplation, While waking life is often deemed superior, I argue that dream life holds a paradoxical value. The powerful artistic impulses in nature suggest that the primordial unity, eternally suffering and contradictory, requires joyful appearances for its salvation. Thus, dreams become a higher gratification of this desire for manifestation. Raphael's Transfiguration symbolises this process, contrasting eternal pain with a blissful new world of appearances. Apollo embodies the principle of individuation, demanding self-knowledge and moderation. The Apollonian ethos stands in opposition to the chaotic Dionysian forces which, while necessary, threaten to overwhelm the individual. The interplay between these two principles shaped Hellenic art, culminating in the synthesis of both in Greek tragedy, exemplified by figures like Antigone and Cassandra. The purpose of our investigation is to understand the Dionyso-Apollonian genius and its artistic expression, particularly in the origins of tragedy and dramatic hymns. The ancients recognised Homer and Archilochus as the forefathers of Greek poetry, representing the Apollonian naive artist and the Dionysian passionate artist, respectively. While Homer embodies objective artistry, Archilochus, with his cries of desire and scorn, challenges our understanding of artistic subjectivity. Friedrich Schiller notes that the poetic process often begins with a musical mood rather than clear imagery. The lyric poet, as a Dionysian artist, embodies the primordial unity's pain and contradiction. But then, the Apollonian dream inspiration makes this music visible as a symbolic dream picture. The eye of the lyric poet emerges from a deeper existential realm, transcending modern notions of subjectivity. When Archilochus expresses his passions, he does not merely present his individual desires. Instead, he channels the essence of Dionysus, creating lyrical poetry that evolves into tragedy. Unlike the epic poet, who contemplates static images, the lyric poet experiences a dynamic interplay of symbols that reflect his eternal self. Thus, Archilochus becomes a vision of the genius, expressing primordial pain through the figure of the man, where the subjective desires of the individual are separate from true artistry. Schopenhauer acknowledged the complexities of the lyric poet in art, but proposed a solution that I cannot fully endorse. He characterises song as a blend of desire and pure, willless knowing, where the singer oscillates between emotional states. This mingling of desire and contemplation suggests that lyric poetry is an imperfect art, achieving its goal only intermittently. However, I argue that this dichotomy between subjective and objective is misplaced in aesthetics. The artist, as a subject, transcends individual will and becomes a medium for the true subject, celebrating redemption through appearance. Art is not merely for our betterment. Rather, we are instruments in a grand artistic expression. Our existence gains significance only as an aesthetic phenomenon, and our understanding of art is ultimately illusory. The genius in creating art merges with the primordial artist of the world, experiencing a profound unity as both subject and object, actor and spectator. Archilochus revolutionised literature by introducing the folk song, earning him a place alongside Homer. This folk song embodies the union of the Apollonian and Dionysian, reflecting a powerful artistic impulse that resonates across cultures. It serves as a musical mirror of the world, where melody is primary, and where poetry is generated through a repeating process. The repetitive, strophic form of popular songs reveals a dynamic, irregular world, contrasting with the steady flow of epic poetry. Lyric poetry is music's expression in images and concepts, where the lyric poet interprets music through the lens of will, embodying passion and desire. However, this interpretation remains limited as music transcends language, symbolising a deeper essence that words cannot fully capture. Thus, while lyric poetry is influenced by music, it can only touch the surface of its profound significance, which exists beyond mere phenomena. To understand the origin of Greek tragedy, we must examine the tragic chorus, which was its essence. Traditional views suggest the chorus represents the ideal spectator, or the moral law of the people, but these interpretations overlook the chorus's religious beginnings. The notion that the chorus embodies the crowd is a simplistic assertion, contrasting sharply with the historical fact that tragedy began solely as chorus. The true spectator, unlike the idealised version, engages with the reality of the stage. Schiller insightfully described the chorus as a protective barrier, preserving tragedy's ideal domain and poetic freedom. He challenges the conventional view of naturalism in dramatic poetry, asserting that the introduction of the chorus marks a decisive rejection of naturalism. He argues that the Greek satiric chorus exists in an ideal realm, elevated above reality, and embodies a truth recognised by the ancient Greeks. The chorus was performed by the satyrs, which were the companions of Dionysus, like Silenus. This chorus, representing a collective consciousness, allows individuals to transcend societal divisions and reconnect with nature. In the face of existential despair, art becomes a healing force, transforming the absurdity of existence into representations of the sublime and comic. The satiric chorus serves as a vital expression of this artistic salvation in Greek tragedy. The satyr embodies the Greeks' reverence for nature, contrasting sharply with the modern man's sentimental shepherd. The satyr represents the archetype of man, expressing profound emotions and the raw power of nature, while modern culture presents a distorted reality. The satiric chorus in tragedy reflects this truth, revealing the essence of existence beyond cultural illusions. The Greek audience, immersed in the performance, sees themselves as part of this chorus, transcending the divide between spectator and art. True poetry arises from vivid perception, where the poet experiences living characters, making the aesthetic phenomenon a direct engagement with reality. Dionysian excitement allows individuals to see themselves transformed, merging with a chorus of spirits. This transformation is foundational to drama, distinguishing it from mere observation. The repetitive chorus represents a community of transformed beings. Greek tragedy emerges from this Dionysian chorus, which expresses the essence of existence through Apollonian imagery. Initially, tragedy is purely choral, but as the drama evolves, the chorus evokes a Dionysian frenzy, enabling spectators to perceive the tragic hero as a visionary figure, bridging the Apollonian dream state and the raw power of nature. In Greek tragedy, the Apollonian dialogue is simple and beautiful, reflecting the clarity of the Hellenic spirit. Sophoclean heroes like Oedipus embody this precision. However, beneath this surface lies a darker truth, akin to the blinding spots after gazing at the sun. Oedipus, despite his wisdom, faces tragic errors, and his suffering brings a transformative influence, suggesting that noble individuals do not sin, yet create new worlds from destruction. The myth of Oedipus, who murdered his father and married his mother, illustrates that profound wisdom often arises from breaking natural laws, hinting that such knowledge can lead to one's own dissolution, a theme beautifully rendered by the poet. In contrast to the passivity of Oedipus, Aeschylus' Prometheus embodies the glory of active defiance. Similarly, Goethe's Prometheus declares his creative power, shaping humanity in his image and disregarding the gods. This act of rebellion reflects a profound yearning for justice, as Prometheus suffers for his boldness, symbolising the tension between divine and human realms. The myth suggests that humanity's greatest achievements come at a cost, positioning crime as a necessary aspect of cultural advancement. Unlike the Semitic view of sin, the Arian perspective sees active transgression as a virtue, highlighting the tragic nature of existence where individual striving leads to suffering. The duality of Prometheus, both Dionysian and Apollonian, captures the essence of this struggle, revealing that all existence is simultaneously just and unjust. Greek tragedy, originally centred on the sufferings of Dionysus, who served as the sole tragic hero. This theme persisted until Euripides, who shifted the focus away from Dionysus. However, all tragic figures like Prometheus and Oedipus remain masks of this original hero. The ideality of these characters stems from the divine presence behind them, with Dionysus embodying the suffering of individuation. His dismemberment symbolises the source of all suffering, while the hope for his rebirth represents the desire to transcend individuality and restore unity. The Homeric epics celebrated Olympian culture, but tragedy revealed a deeper understanding of existence, showcasing the tension between the Titans and the Olympians. Dionysian truth reclaims myth, transforming it into a vehicle for profound wisdom through music. However, Euripides' approach diluted this vitality, reducing myth and music to mere imitations, ultimately forsaking the essence of Dionysian creativity. Greek tragedy met a tragic end, unlike other arts that faded gracefully. Its demise left a profound void, echoing the lament, tragedy is dead. This death struggle, embodied by Euripides, gave rise to new Greek comedy. Euripides introduced the commonplace individual to the stage, shifting focus from heroic figures to more relatable characters. He revolutionised language, enabling civic mediocrity to express itself. But this shift led to a superficial cheerfulness, devoid of depth, which later Christian thinkers found contemptible, obscuring the rich legacy of earlier Greek thought and tragedy. Euripides' approach suggests a complex relationship with the audience. While it may seem he aimed to align art with public judgement, he actually viewed the masses as inferior. Despite their adoration, he maintained a defiant stance, believing himself superior to the crowd. His true respect lay with two specific spectators, himself as a thinker and the ideal audience he envisioned. Euripides critiqued the works of his predecessors, finding them enigmatic and overly grand. This dissatisfaction drove him to redefine tragedy, challenging the established norms of Aeschylus and Sophocles through his own artistic vision, rather than through direct criticism. Euripides sought to aiming to create a new form of art devoid of chaos. However, he acknowledges its power in the Bacchae. Despite his initial opposition, he ultimately glorifies Dionysus, revealing a conflict between his artistic aspirations and the enduring force of the god. This tension introduces a new antithesis, the Socratic versus the Dionysian. Euripides' drama, while striving for Apollonian ideals, becomes a blend of cool rationality and fiery passion, while lacking the tragic depth of earlier works. Euripides aimed to establish drama on a naturalistic and rationalistic foundation. His aesthetic Socratism posits that beauty requires intelligibility, paralleling Socratic thought that virtue is rooted in knowledge. This led Euripides to critically assess all elements of drama, resulting in a perceived decline compared to Sophocles. His prologues, which reveal plot details up front, contrast with traditional suspense, prioritising emotional engagement. Euripides viewed himself as a sober artist amidst drunken poets, advocating for clarity and understanding. In this context, Socrates emerges as a key spectator, marking a significant shift in Greek tragedy. Socrates' relationship with Euripides was noted in antiquity, with some suggesting he assisted Euripides in his poetry. Both figures were criticised for promoting a form of enlightenment that some believed led to a decline in traditional Greek values. Socrates attended Euripides' plays, and the Delphic Oracle recognised the two as the wisest and second wisest of men. Socrates' critical approach revealed a lack of true knowledge among celebrated figures, leading him to challenge existing art and ethics. He sought to correct societal flaws, embodying a new cultural perspective. His daemonion, a divine voice that dissuaded him, contrasted with the instinctive creativity of other artists. Socrates' logical nature, devoid of mysticism, positioned him as a unique figure, ultimately leading to his trial and death, which he faced with calmness, becoming an ideal for future generations. Socrates, with his singular focus on rationality, viewed tragedy as absurd, a chaotic mix of causes and effects that lacked philosophical clarity. He believed that true poetry, like Aesop's fables, conveyed truth simply and directly, making tragic art unworthy of a philosopher's attention. Socrates and Plato dismissed tragedy as a seductive art that misrepresents reality, leading Plato to create a new form of art, dialogue, that merged various styles while striving to express deeper truths. This shift marked a departure from the Dionysian essence of tragedy, as Socratic optimism, asserting that virtue is knowledge and ignorance leads to sin, undermined the tragic hero's complexity. The chorus, once central to tragedy, became marginalised, signalling a decline in its Dionysian roots. Despite Socrates' disdain for art, he felt a prompting him to explore music and poetry, suggesting a potential reconciliation between philosophy and artistic expression. This tension raises questions about the relationship between Socratism and art, hinting at a necessary interplay between the two realms. Socrates' influence looms over culture like a shadow. Many cultures have sought to distance themselves from the Greeks, feeling diminished in their presence. Yet the Greeks, despite their flaws, hold the reins of our cultural chariot. Socrates embodies the theoretical man, finding satisfaction in the pursuit of truth. This pursuit reveals a profound illusion, the belief that thought can grasp and correct existence. Socrates' death, free from fear through knowledge, symbolises science's mission to render existence comprehensible. Socrates represents a pivotal moment in universal history, marking the transition to a widespread thirst for knowledge. His influence has fostered a global network of thought, elevating science and philosophy. In contrast to practical pessimism, Socrates embodies theoretical optimism, believing in the power of knowledge to remedy error and evil. He viewed the pursuit of truth as humanity's highest calling, deriving moral virtues from dialectics. However, as science approaches its limits, it encounters tragic perception, which necessitates art as a safeguard. We stand at the crossroads of present and future, questioning whether art will evolve or succumb to chaos. Tragedy fades with the decline of the spirit of music. To understand this, we must examine contemporary struggles between optimistic science and the tragic need for art. I focus on the Greek deities Apollo and Dionysus, representing two distinct artistic realms. Apollo symbolises individuation and redemption through form, while Dionysus embodies the breaking of individuation, revealing deeper truths. Schopenhauer recognised music as Music serves as a universal language, revealing the essence of existence, unlike mere representations of phenomena. We might consider the world as embodied music, as music imbues every scene with deeper significance, especially when its melodies resonate with the essence of the phenomenon. While concepts represent the abstract forms of reality, music reveals the core essence of existence. Dionysian art influences Apollonian art by enhancing the significance of images and concepts, giving rise to tragic myths that convey deeper truths. The tragic experience, rooted in the absurd joy of annihilation, reflects the eternal life of the will beyond individual suffering. In contrast, Apollonian art glorifies beauty and obscures life's pain. Dionysian art, however, embraces the truth of existence, urging us to accept the eternal cycle of creation and change. Dionysian art reveals the eternal joy of existence, urging us to seek joy beyond phenomena. Greek tragedy, born from music, embodies a deeper wisdom than its words convey. The incongruence between myth and expression may mislead us to underestimate its significance. The decline of tragedy, driven by the scientific spirit, suggests an eternal conflict between knowledge and the tragic view. Only when science recognises its limits might tragedy and its profound insights be reborn. Aristophanes rightly linked Socrates, Euripides, and the new dithyrambic poets as symptoms of a degenerate culture. The new poetry reduces music to mere imitation of phenomena, stripping it of its mythopoeic power. This shift leads to a focus on individual character representation over universal types, prioritising psychological detail over myth. As tragedy loses its metaphysical comfort, it becomes earthly and superficial. The anti-Dionysian spirit promotes a cheerfulness devoid of depth, favouring scientific knowledge over artistic reflection, ultimately undermining the profound wisdom and transformative power of true art. The greedy will perpetuates life through illusions, binding individuals to existence. Some are captivated by the Socratic pursuit of knowledge, others by art's beauty, and still others by metaphysical comforts. These illusions serve to distract nobler souls from the burdens of life. Modern culture, heavily influenced by Alexandrine ideals, prioritises the theorist, exemplified by Socrates, while neglecting other forms of existence. This optimism, however, masks the need for a slave class to sustain it, leading to societal unrest. A discontented, barbaric class, perceiving their existence as unjust, threatens to unleash vengeance, challenging the foundations of exhausted religions. As theoretical culture stirs unease in modern man, he seeks to avert danger, yet doubts the efficacy of his means. Great thinkers like Kant and Schopenhauer have exposed the limits of knowledge, challenging the optimistic belief in universal truths. They reveal that concepts like space, time, and causality do not reflect the true essence of reality. This shift heralds a tragic culture where wisdom, not science, becomes the highest pursuit, embracing the eternal suffering of existence. However, as Socratic culture falters, modern man, fearful and dissatisfied, hesitates to confront life's harsh realities, becoming a critic trapped in endless imitation and disillusionment. Socratic culture can be aptly described as the culture of the opera. The emergence of the recitative, a form of music that prioritises spoken words over true musical devotion, reflects a deeper, extra-artistic tendency. This style, appealing to the listener's desire for clarity, creates a tension between music and speech, leading to a superficial blend of epic and lyric forms. The creators of the recitative mistakenly believed they had rediscovered the essence of ancient music, viewing opera as a return to a paradisiacal state of artistic purity. This optimistic portrayal of humanity as inherently good and artistic fulfils a non-aesthetic need, ultimately transforming into a demand for rights that resonates with contemporary social movements. Opera exemplifies the principles of Alexandrine culture, emerging from the demands of unmusical audiences who prioritise understanding words over true musical expression. This reflects a belief that every person is an artist, leading to a superficial blend of music and rhetoric. The opera's idyllic portrayal of humanity as inherently good and artistic stems from a false belief in the artistic process, where emotion is mistaken for creativity. Rather than expressing sorrow, opera embodies a cheerful rediscovery of an idealised past. However, this optimistic view risks reducing art to mere entertainment, undermining the deeper truths of music. The revival of the Dionysian spirit in modernity offers hope. German music, from Bach to Wagner, emerges as a powerful force, defying the constraints of Socratic culture. This music cannot be understood through the analytical lens of contemporary aesthetics, as it embodies a primal energy. Similarly, Kant and Schopenhauer's philosophies challenge the complacency of scientific Socratism, paving the way for a deeper ethical and artistic understanding. This unity of German music and philosophy suggests a new existence. As Germany seeks to rediscover its essence, it must learn from the Greeks, especially as it experiences a rebirth of tragedy, navigating its origins and future direction. The German spirit has struggled to learn from the Greeks, with Goethe, Schiller and Winkelmann representing its noblest efforts. However, since their time, this pursuit has weakened alarmingly. This decline raises doubts about whether true cultural advancement can occur. The current educational institutions have compromised the Hellenic ideal, often reducing Greek contributions to mere historical study. As culture becomes estranged from true art, the hope for renewal lies in the reawakening of the Dionysian spirit and the rebirth of tragedy. Amidst cultural desolation, we must believe in this revival, as it promises a purification of the German spirit through music. The time of the Socratic man is over. It is time to become tragic men and celebrate the wonders of existence. The Greeks are the people of the tragic mysteries. Despite violent upheavals, they maintained powerful political sentiments and instincts. Tragedy mediates between the strongest characteristics of a people, presenting a heroism which reminds us of a higher joy beyond existence. The interplay between music and myth is of profound metaphysical significance, as it allows the tragic spectator to sense supreme joy through destruction and negation, and this guides humanity toward transcendence. Between our highest musical excitement and the itself lie the tragic myth and the hero, which are symbols of universal truths that music alone conveys. If we were purely Dionysian, myth would be ineffective, allowing us to hear only the raw essence of existence. However, the Apollonian power restores the individual with a blissful illusion, transforming our perception of tragedy. This illusion allows us to see the characters of depths. While music enhances the drama, it ultimately reveals the deeper Dionysian truths, suggesting that tragedy embodies a union of both Apollonian clarity and Dionysian wisdom. A true musical tragedy elevates the audience to a state of omniscience, revealing the depths of human will, motives, and passions. This experience contrasts with the blissful contemplation offered by Apollonian art, which justifies the world through individuation. The tragic hero, though depicted in beauty, ultimately faces annihilation, provoking a complex internal conflict. This tension arises from the Dionysian influence, which, while enhancing Apollonian emotions, leads to a yearning for unity beyond the tragic experience. Tragic myth symbolises Dionysian wisdom through Apollonian art, guiding the audience to confront the boundaries of existence. The aesthetic experience transcends mere moral interpretations, as true tragedy embodies aesthetic play. The rebirth of tragedy revitalises the aesthetic listener, contrasting with the critical, moralistic audience that has historically dominated. This shift emphasises the need for genuine artistic engagement, moving beyond superficial discussions of art to a deeper appreciation of its transformative power. To understand one's relationship to the true aesthetic experience, one must reflect on their response to the wonder depicted on stage. If one feels insulted by the historical sense of causality, they may struggle to grasp the essence of myth, which is vital for a culture's creative power. Without myth, culture becomes fragmented and devoid of a unifying foundation, leading to a relentless search for meaning in the past. This modern condition, influenced by Socratic thought, results in a culture that cannot be satisfied as it lacks a mythical home. The German character, unlike that of France, has not yet fully succumbed to this myth-less existence. The revival of German music and myth can emerge from the depths of this cultural crisis, echoing the powerful chorales of the Reformation. To reclaim this lost connection, one must look to the Greeks, whose art and myth provided a timeless framework for understanding life. Musical tragedy creates an Apollonian illusion that allows us to engage with the Dionysian music while maintaining a safe distance, enabling a deeper understanding of the drama. This interplay reveals the highest artistic potential, merging the spirits of Apollo and Dionysus. However, unlike other forms of Apollonian art, the drama does not provide the same calm delight. Instead, it presents a symbolic picture that invites us to seek beyond the surface. The essence of tragic myth lies in its ability to convey profound suffering and conflict, suggesting that even the most painful experiences can yield aesthetic pleasure. This pleasure must be understood as purely aesthetic, separate from morality. The joy derived from tragic myth parallels the joy found in musical dissonance. The decline of myth reflects a weakening of cultural vitality, yet the German spirit retains a dormant strength, awaiting a revival through music and myth, promising a return to its rich, mythical heritage. Music and tragic myth are equally the expression of the spirit of Dionysus on a people and are inseparable from each other. Both originate in an ultra-Apollonian sphere of art, and both justify the existence even of the worst world. Here, Dionysus, as compared with Apollo, exhibits itself as the eternal and original artistic force, which in general calls into existence the entire world of phenomena. In order to live an incarnation of dissonance, we require a glorious illusion that spreads a veil of beauty over its peculiar nature. This is the true function of Apollo as a deity of art. At the same time, the Dionysian substratum of the world is allowed to enter into the consciousness of human beings, as it can be surmounted again by the Apollonian transfiguring power. Thus, these two art impulses develop in proportion to each other. An increase in the spirit of Dionysus comes as a result of the Apollonian influence, and vice versa. We worship one of the gods to counteract the effects of the other, and we must undergo great suffering in order to acquire great beauty. And that brings us to the end of Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music. 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