Cairo: Gateway to Egypt's Ancient Treasures

A gigantic city of 22 million inhabitants has been the capital of Egypt for centuries. It is located on the banks of the Nile River, the main artery of the entire country, for transport and trade as well as agriculture, which for a long time was only possible thanks to the flooding of the river. Bringing together modernity and tradition, Cairo is an essential place to visit for those who want to know more about the ancient civilizations that developed in Egypt between the 4th millennium BC and the period of the Roman occupation. At the time, Cairo did not exist. The main sites were Giza and the nearby Saqqara, as well as Thebes, the large capital of the south, and Tanis in the north. Archaeological researchers begin to investigate these sites, as well as many others, starting in the early 19th century. Initially undertaken by the French, their excavations became more international at the beginning of the 20th century, and teams from all over the world continue to dig in the country under the supervision of the Egyptian authorities. Objects brought to light are displayed in the major museums of Europe and the Egyptian Museum of Cairo. The museum stands on Tahrir Square, in the heart of Cairo, which is the political, religious and cultural centre of the city. It was also the site of the Arab Spring in 2011, when tens of thousands of protesters demanded and obtained the fall of President Mubarak's regime. It also contains the Mugama, a huge building housing several ministries. The Egyptian Museum has existed since the 1860s, but it was originally located in a different neighbourhood. The collections quickly outgrew their space, and this new building was inaugurated in 1902. Some copies of statues were placed outside to attract attention and provide an idea of what is inside the museum. The steles, sphinxes and royal statues found in large numbers throughout Egypt. The museum was designed by a French architect, Marcel Dornion, who was assisted by an English engineer. Marked by their classical training, they created an Egyptianised, very art nouveau design. The entrance of the museum leads to the large central galleries, lined on the sites by similar moons. It really feels like entering a cave of treasures. In fact, across its two storeys, the Egyptian Museum brings together hundreds of thousands of works, including objects, statues, coffins, sarcophagi, grave goods and paintings. Only a small portion of which are on display. All these works came from excavations carried out across Egypt since the rise of Egyptology in the 1820s. The archaeologist François Mariette, the scholar Champollion and many other contributed to the growth of knowledge and the unearthing of all these works from beneath the Egyptian sand. The heaviest, most imposing pieces are on the ground floor, while the smaller, more precious objects, as well as the entirety of Tutankhamun's treasure, are displayed on the upper level. Filled to the brim with works and visitors, this museum was given a successor, or rather a twin, when the Department of Egyptian Antiquities had a new, very modern museum built at the foot of the pyramids. The Grand Egyptian Museum was opened in 2021. Let's begin from the top with the galleries of the upper level. Along with providing a view of the great hall of the museum, these galleries are filled with treasures, including the famous contents of Tutankhamun's tomb. The fabulous treasure found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, one of the only pharaonic burial sites to be discovered virtually intact, provides an idea of what riches the other tombs originally contained. The tomb of Tutankhamun contained thousands of objects, like furniture, including a splendid throne and several beds, one of which features two long golden cows, along with jewels, statuettes, heads, masks, vases, fans, and around 130 canes. After a corridor, the tomb consisted of several rooms, including an antechamber, annex, and treasury room, all placed around the burial chamber itself. In these rooms, there were statuettes of protective divinities, particularly in the antechamber and treasury room. These statues are made of wood and coloured with gesso, a very fine plaster, and gold leaf. The eyes are inlaid with molten glass and copper. Some additional details are outlined with black paint. Among the gods depicted there are the falcon, an emblem of several gods, the cobra who protects the pharaoh from his enemies, and Sekhmet, the lion goddess, a daughter of Ra, the sun god, an armed ally against the king's enemies. They form a kind of army in the service of the king, tasked with helping, accompanying, and defending him during his journey into the afterlife. At the entrance to the funeral chamber, on each side of the door, there were two car statues of the pharaoh himself. In a walking pose, the two statues were identical, apart from their hair and the inscriptions on their loincloths. Black like the god Osiris, they were originally covered with bandages, so they could serve as a substitute bodies should the mummy be destroyed. One of the finest pieces in the tomb was the throne made of gilded wood, found in the antechamber. It is incredibly richly decorated, with inlaid semi-precious stones, molten glass, and silver. It incorporates the royal symbol of the lion, vulture, and serpent, as well as the solar disk. It was probably made for his father, Akhenaten, and then entirely reworked at the start of his son's reign. The altar that held the canopic vases of Tutankhamun can be found in the next gallery. These alabaster vases contained the mummified viscera of the king. The details are painted black, contrasting strongly with the cream color of the calcite. Each statue faithfully reproduces the face of the pharaoh, who appeared to be very young. There were four. The liver, the stomach, the lungs, and the intestines. Each protected by a genie, a goddess, and a garden or point. This is why you see the four goddesses, Isis, Nephthys, Selketh, and Neith, on each side of the altar containing their corresponding vase, protecting it with open arms. The design is very modern. The upper portion of the altar is topped by a double frieze, with urari, serpents of the solar disc, and protectors of the pharaoh. Another seat was found in the antechamber, a ceremonial chair with a strange shape. It seems to be a stool that was turned into a chair by adding a back. Made of ebony, the inlaid ivory gives the impression of fur on the seat, while the back bears a magnificent vulture framed by cartouches, the name Tutankhamun. This statue of Anubis, the god presiding over mummification, was placed in the treasury room, with its head turned towards the funeral chamber, to protect it against any intruders, and may have been carried in processions. The funeral chamber contained the mummified body of the king, very poorly preserved, enclosed in three coffins, a stone sarcophagus, and four wooden chapels, nestled within each other. The chapels were shaped like small shrines, and were made with joined cedar panels, with a double door facing east. They had no floor to facilitate their nesting. Together, they composed the rulers' house fraternity, bearing numerous decorations engraved on their walls. The first chapel, the largest, was built in the chamber itself, and takes up virtually all the space. Its walls and doors bear a colourful decoration, lined with emblematic signs associated with Isis and Osiris. The alternating blue and gold give it great harmony. On the walls of the second chapel, Tutankhamun stands before the god Ra, depicted as a man, with the head of a ram. He's formed during his nocturnal voyage, before being reborn in the morning. The scene is accompanied by many hieroglyphics, inscriptions of prayers and formulas to recite, so that the king can also accomplish his journey without trouble. On the other side, the king wearing the double crown of Egypt, meets Osiris, god of the kingdom of the dead, who can be recognised by the shroud he wears. The side also features many carvings. Their fine and delicate lines perfectly accentuate the forms and silhouettes of the hieroglyphs. The fourth chapel, the smallest one, also features depictions of the goddess Isis and Nephthys, spreading their winged arms as a sign of protection. Inside the tomb, there is a lavish sarcophagus, weighing 110 kilograms, with a golden mask and 2,099 intact objects. The sarcophagus features winged goddesses, carved on its corners, a common trait of masculine tombs. However, the arms of the goddesses did not have wings originally, they were added later, when the deceased was placed inside. That means when it was made, the tomb was perhaps not intended for Tutankhamun, but rather for a queen, or perhaps one of Akhenaten's daughters. The most famous pieces are without a doubt the coffin of Tutankhamun, found within the sarcophagus. The one that contained the mummy is the most well-known, with its golden mask. The decorations are astonishingly rich, when you consider that he had only reigned for a few years, and he died before reaching the age of 20. A large room at the back of the gallery, on the first floor, contains the most precious works from Tutankhamun's treasure. One of them is the ostrich hunt fan, which shows the pharaoh's chariot, and his servants carrying the killed ostriches. The feathers of the fan came from one of his catches. This shield was a processional object, and was in no way fit for use in war. It shows the king killing lions, as a symbol of his power. Other statues also show the king. This one, made of gilded wood, shows the king with a swollen belly, a sign that he was influenced by the Amarna period. Other statues portray the patron gods of the royalty, or Tutankhamun on his journey through the afterlife. Archaeologists can recognize them, thanks to the depictions from the Book of the Dead, that accompanied the deceased in their tombs. Technically, the work is of exceptional quality, with the craftsmen displaying a high degree of finesse and taste, in their blending of diverse materials and techniques, with different species of wood, earthenware, molten glass, metal, painting, engravings, etc. According to Egyptian beliefs, the afterlife resembled the world of the living in many ways. Once the pharaoh made it there, he would need servants. These are represented in the form of small statuettes, called ushaptis, portrayed as multiple characters dressed in shrouds, carrying the crook and flail like Osiris, or other signs of their functions. The minute detail of the portrayals is striking. This colossal statue must have once stood before the funeral temple of Tutankhamun, which is now completely lost. It was probably usurped by the first and second successors to the young pharaoh. This is what the name of the belt with the loincloth would seem to indicate, as it has been scratched out twice. Who was Tutankhamun? Tutankhamun was the 11th pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, most emblematic of the new empire, and probably all of Egyptian civilization. He was born around 1345 BC, and died around 1327, the age of 18. He was the son of Akhenaten, and that pharaoh's own sister, who were themselves the children of the great pharaoh Amenhotep III, and the queen Tiye. He acceded to the throne around the year 1335, at the age of 10, and married his sister, Honky Senamun. The tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun was discovered in the Valley of the Kings in 1922, by the English Egyptologist, Howard Carter. He'd worked in Egypt since 1892, both as a helper on foreign excavation, and as a watercolour artist, selling his works to tourists as souvenirs. Howard Carter had been charged to carry out excavations by Lord Carnarvon, a rich English patron who was passionate about archaeology. In 1915, Carnarvon had bought a concession to explore the Valley of the Kings, from the Egyptian government. The concession had previously belonged to Theodore Monroe Davis, a rich North American financer, who was one of the main concessionaries in the excavation in the Valleys of the Kings, between 1889 and 1912. He had discovered around 30 tombs, including the provisional tomb of Queen Hatshepsut, then the tomb of Tutankhamun IV, Amanhattep III, and those of Rameses II, Rameses IV, and Rameses VIII, among others. Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon quickly proved to be a great team, driven by the conviction that there was still much to discover in the Theban necropolis, and in particular, in the Valley of the Kings. From the moment he took up his post in 1917, Howard Carter had only one objective, to find the tomb of Tutankhamun. After an unsuccessful campaign in 1921 and 1922, Howard Carter continued his explorations in autumn 1922. On November the 4th, 1922, he discovered the step of a staircase sinking into the ground. Carter could hardly dare believe that his dream of 10 years was about to be fulfilled. It would exceed anything he could have imagined. On November the 6th, Howard Carter sent a telegram to Lord Carnarvon in London. At last, we have made wonderful discovery in Valley. A magnificent tomb, with seals intact, have closed it until your arrival. Congratulations. Lord Carnarvon arrived in Luxor two weeks later, which was a feat at the time. Exploration continued on November the 24th, and on November the 26th, 1922, Carter was the first to glimpse the inside of the antechamber. Well, do you see anything? Asked Carnarvon. Yes, wonders, replied Carter. After resealing the tomb, they had to wait until June 17th, 1923, for the official opening in the presence of the inspector of Egyptian antiquities. Clearing the tomb would take 10 years. The majority of the objects found there remained in Egypt and are displayed at the Museum of Cairo, aside from the pieces taken by Howard Carter, which can be found at the British Museum in London. Tutankhamun's treasure fuelled the legend of the Pharaoh's Curse, which was born after the death of Lord Carnarvon, and amplified by newspapers seeking to increase their sales at the time of the discovery. The newspapers spoke of a non-existent inscription that they claimed said, those who enter this sacred tomb will be met with the wings of death. Rumour had it that the Lord's dog, who had remained at Highclere Castle, let out a howl the moment his master died. At that moment, the lights of the castle and those of Cairo all went out. The decade that followed, the press would attribute 30 deaths to the curse. Epidemiologist Mark Nelson, from Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, studied the history books and retraced the paths of the Westerners, who Howard Carter stated were present in Egypt during the expedition from February 1923 to November 1926. There were members of the expedition, the press, Belgian royalty, British officials, and experts employed by the Egyptian government. 44 of them were present at one of the four events that may have exposed them to the mummy's curse. Were they presented at the opening of the tomb, the opening of Tutankhamen's sarcophagus, the opening of the three golden coffins, or the examination of Tutankhamen's mummy, the people there died at an average age of 17 to 75. Lady Evelyn Herbert, the daughter of Lord Carnarvon, who was present at the opening of the tomb, died at 79 years old. Alan Gardner, who studied the inscriptions in the tomb, lived to the age of 80. Anne Douglas Derry, who conducted the autopsy on Tutankhamen's mummy, reached the age of 87. From its discovery in 1922 until 1960, the treasure of Tutankhamen remained in the Museum of Cairo. It was exhibited outside of Egypt for the first time between 1961 and 1967. First in Paris, then London, and then around the world. The most well-known exhibition tour unfolded between 1972 and 1978, once again visiting London and Paris, then Russia, the United States, Canada, Germany, and many other countries. The exhibition that began in 2019 in Paris beat all the records, regardless of the city, with over 1,423,000 visitors exceeding the 1967 record from the same city with 1,240,000 visitors. The treasure of Tutankhamen is not the only thing on display on the first floor of the Museum of Cairo. Far from it. In fact, there are many other riches to see. The galleries that line the walls are filled with countless painted wooden sarcophagi, most of them mummy form. They are so numerous that it can make visitors' heads spin. They all come from the New Kingdom, were found in the various necropolises that line the left bank of the Nile. They tell us of their owners, their families, their beliefs. The most beautiful belong to the members of the royal family, like Merit Amun, who was the wife of a pharaoh at the start of the 18th dynasty. Her first coffin was a relatively simple wooden one. With a mummy form shape, it shows her face and has a simple inscription along the body. The first coffin was enclosed in the second, which was much more richly decorated. This coffin was itself enclosed in a stone sarcophagus, found in pieces. Many sarcophagi were damaged very early on. The coffin of Amenhotep I bears the mark of the inspectors sent to restore the royal tomb some 500 years after his death. A great elegance marks the sarcophagus of Queen Nessie Khonsu, the wife of Pinojhim II, who lived at the start of the first millennium BC. Perfectly sculpted and painted, this young woman with delicately crossed hands shows that, even at a late stage, Egyptian civilization still had plenty of life in it. The galleries led to other rooms that are also dedicated to funeral rites and objects found in the tombs. In an attempt to limit damage caused by time or looters, the Egyptians often wrapped their coffins in bandages, like the mummies, which gave them an extra protection against humidity. These are very rare to find. Starting in the Middle Kingdom and increasingly afterwards, the sarcophagi bore multiple painted decorations. Not only did they depict the deceased, particularly their upper portion, but they were also covered with pictures and inscriptions describing the funeral rites to be carried out, the journey of the deceased to the kingdom of the dead and the divinities that ensured their protection. They are truly like illustrated books that give countless information on the civilization and beliefs of those people who lived and died several millennia ago. Their preservation, particularly the colours, is truly exceptional, thanks to the arid climate of Egypt. In one of the halls of the museum, they have assembled the most precious objects found in tombs since the Old Kingdom, with bracelets and necklaces as well as cups, razors, mirrors and funeral boats, which the deceased would take with them into the afterlife. Gold was a popular material, but they also used molten glass to make different coloured pearls and create large necklaces which were clearly very in style around 2500 BC. With a piercing eye, this falcon has a head made of hammered gold attached to a wooden body, proof of the fascination it still exerted. A crown with two feathers was added to it around 700 years later. Some of these jewels had sacred connotations. This golden diadem presents the god Serapis, protecting the young Harpocrates, Horus, as a child. Necklaces were made with amulets bearing the images of certain gods, which would magically protect those who wore them. Some of the most captivating objects of Egyptian civilization are the wooden models that depict tools and moments from everyday life. They were also found in tombs. These models show how Egyptians imagined that the afterlife perfectly resembled the world they knew. Made of wood and then painted, these boats are portrayed down to the smallest details. The paddles for steering, the central seat, the assembly of the beams and the rigging of the sails. They are funeral boats, recalling the transportation of the body from the other side of the Nile, as the necropolises were located on the left bank, while the cities were on the right bank. These boats also evoke the voyage of the deceased to the kingdom of the dead, much like the sun god Ra's journey through the night to rise again in the morning. These models are all the more touching because they also show the crews working on the boat as though you were there. Here are the fishermen casting their nets to ensure the sustenance of the deceased in the afterlife, the same way they did in reality. Here is the crew rowing, directed by the captain, with the master seated beneath his central canopy. Here is Mekhetre, seated with his son in a kiosk, while scribes and servants count the heads of livestock and herds driven by the shepherds. For around 4,000 years, this high official has tirelessly fulfilled his duties, evoking for eternity what he did in his life. All of these models, most of which date from the Middle Kingdom, provide a three-dimensional recreation of scenes that would have been painted on the walls of tombs in the previous era. The techniques changed, but the beliefs remained the same. And all these little Egyptian people came to life before our eyes. Potters, servants, water bearers. Although the style may be a bit rough, they are remarkably well preserved. Even the fabrics used to make the loincloths have sometimes survived. In the showcases along the walls of an entire gallery, fragments of Egyptian writing in varying sizes are displayed. Most of these very fragile objects were discovered in the tomb of the New Kingdom, or later, and are from what we call the Book of the Dead. They show multiple scenes and write out ritual formulas, sometimes across dozens of meters of papyrus, which were then rolled up and placed in the tomb. The drawings mainly show the deceased, accompanied by protective divinities who present them to the god Osiris. They bring numerous offerings and must recite the formulas written above. Having them written protected the deceased from any mistake or omission that prevent them from reaching the kingdom of the dead. The depictions have varying quality, but all obey the conventions of Egyptian art, with the eye and shoulders facing forward on a body shown in profile. The palette of five colors is sufficient to bring the scenes to life. The tomb of Tuya and Yuya were found in the Valley of the Kings, which was a rare privilege for someone who was not a pharaoh. But a couple was close to the royal family, as they were the parents of Queen Ti, and were thus the in-laws of Amenhotep III. The masks that were placed on the mummies, as per tradition, were made of pressed cardboard, which was then painted and gilded. They were made in the likeness of the two deceased, so that their car, or spiritual double, could recognize them to rejoin the body if needed. Numerous pieces of furniture were also found, like this throne that belonged to their granddaughter, Sitamun, and a chariot given to Yuya by the pharaoh, which recalls his title of Master of Horses, and attests to the influence the couple had in the Egyptian regime. The mummy of Yura, covered with its mask, was placed in a gilded wooden coffin, with a cover that was fitted to the vessel with tenons. The coffin was placed within a second, larger mummy-form coffin, which was also made of wood, and was covered with silver leaf and inlaid molten glass. Together with a third coffin, they were contained with a large wooden sarcophagus on runners. It has a particularly elegant decoration, with gilded figures and strips on a black background. Nearby in the tomb, there was Yuya's Book of the Dead, a roll of papyrus that is nearly 20 meters long, with particular elaborate decorations and writing. A notable scene in the book is the Judgment of the Soul being weighed on the scale. This is one of the richest tombs of individuals that has been discovered in Egypt. Another room brings together a large number of objects that come from tombs found in the Temple of Amun in Tannis, the capital of the pharaohs of the 21st and 22nd dynasties. It contains magnificent golden objects, like these masks of the kings Susanus I and Amenhotep. Dating from the start of the first millennia BC, they display a great artistic quality. They also found several pictorial necklaces, which were worn on the chest. These large pieces of goldsmithry were richly elaborated. Finally, they found mammiform coffins with falcon heads, the royal symbol par excellence. The most extraordinary belonged to Pharaoh Shashank II in solid silver. No visit to the museum would be complete without seeing the hall of royal mummies. The mummies of 27 pharaohs have been placed inside for their eternal rest, including the great Tutmosis III, the illustrious Ramesses II, who died at over 92 years old and knew a turbulent life. The mummy was moved several times during antiquity and was found at the end of the 19th century in a hideout organized by grave robbers. Intended to preserve the bodies for eternity, the embalming procedures were continuously developed and improved throughout the course of Egyptian civilization. Once embalmed, the bodies were wrapped in tar-coated strips to protect them from humidity, then covered with a shroud. They were then placed in the coffin with a mask in the likeness of their face. The goal of all these processes were to preserve the body, which was necessary for life in the land of the dead. These human remains are a testimony of this. An absolutely essential complement to any visit to the great Egyptian sites, the Archaeological Museum of Cairo presents a rich collection with statues, sarcophagi, jewels, mummies, book of the dead and the treasure of Tutankhamun. They were discovered during countless excavation campaigns carried out across the country by international and Egyptian teams, who, for a long time, preferred to store these works away to avoid damage or theft. Each of these objects testify to the extraordinary richness of the Egyptian civilization, its intense beliefs and the great abilities of its artists and craftsmen. Through the millennia, they continue to exert a formidable fascination.