Samnite Wars - How Rome Conquered Italy

In the years following the first sack of Rome, Gallic parties would often venture south in hopes of easy riches, but they were seldom successful. During one of these raids, an unnaturally large gold stepped forth and challenged any Roman to single combat. A young soldier, Marcus Valerius, descendant of the famous Puglicola, stepped forward and accepted the challenge. But before the battle could commence, a raven landed on his helmet. A more obvious omen from the gods couldn't be asked for. With the bird's help, Valerius effortlessly defeated the Gallic champion and led the Romans in a comparably easy victory against the rest of the barbarian host. From this day forth, he would be known as Corvus, meaning raven. Such a claim was won on that day that the very next year he was elected consul, despite his young age, being only 23 at the time. Impressive start to a career that would consist of six consulships and two dictatorships. Italian geography is dominated by the Apennine mountain range, stretching down the peninsula. These mountains were inhabited by hill tribes, speaking the Osco-Umbrian family of languages that were related to Latin. Starting in the 5th century BC, the tribes began abandoning the mountains in search of fertile lands near the coast. There they came into contact with the Greeks and the Romans. In 334 BC, an army from Epirus was sent to aid the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia in repelling the Lucanians. Interestingly, only 60 years later, another army from Epirus would cross the Ionian Sea to aid the colonies, this time against the Romans, but we shouldn't get ahead of ourselves. Of these hill tribes, the Semnites were by far the fiercest. Most historians believe they originated as an offshoot of the Sabines. When they first started venturing south, they signed a treaty with Rome in order to deal with their common enemy, the Volscians. While the Romans were consolidating newly won territory, the Semnites started making forays into Campania. Life on the fertile plains made Capuans soft, and they were no match for the battle-hardened tribesmen. In 343 BC, the Capuans requested help from the Romans, but being bound by the treaty, the Romans were unable to assist. Seeing there was no other way, Capua and the rest of the cities in Campania formally surrendered themselves and their lands to Rome. This was, and still is, some of the most fertile land in all of Italy. With Campania under Roman control, famines that were so prevalent during the early years of the Republic would now be a thing of the past. The Senate realized they can't just pass up this golden opportunity, and they accepted their surrender. Envoys were sent to Somnium to inform them of these new developments and request that Semnites abstain from encroaching on Campanian territory. The Semnite court laughed at this request and, adding insult to injury, they ordered a raid on Campania in front of the envoys. When the news of these events reached Rome, war was declared against Somnium and two armies were levied. The first, led by Marcus Valerius Corvus, encamped in Campania, and the second, led by Aulus Cornelius Cossus, marched into Somnium. Valerius was the first to make contact with the enemy. Before the battle, he gave an impassioned speech, proclaiming that he wasn't elected to be their leader due to his famous ancestry, but due to his great skill in combat. This emboldened the men, and they engaged with great resolve. The fighting was fierce, as neither side would give any ground. Seeing there was no other way, Valerius charged to the front line and fought side by side with his men. Eventually, the battle started turning in Roman favor, and the Semnites flew into a rout. Although victorious, the Roman soldiers would admit this was the hardest-fought victory of their careers. The days of fighting unorganized raiders were now over. The enemies that the Romans would face from now on would pose a far greater threat to their ambitions of empire. This victory in Campania was almost completely undone by a huge disaster in Somnium. Cornelius led his army through a narrow mountain pass. Only when the whole army entered the valley, and retreat was impossible, did they realize that the surrounding hills were occupied by the Semnites. Military tribune Publius Decius noticed an unoccupied peak near the enemy position. He led a small detachment of men and scaled the peak without being noticed. When they were in position, the Semnites realized they can't attack the Romans in the valley, as they themselves would be surrounded and unable to escape. This bought enough time for the consul and his men to safely retreat from the valley. Decius and his men were now left surrounded by angry Semnites robbed of an easy victory. Instead of engaging immediately, they decided to starve out the Romans, but this would prove to be a mistake. In the dead of night, while the Semnites were fast asleep, Decius and his men tried to sneak through their lines. But one of the soldiers accidentally dropped his shield on a sleeping Semnite and awoke the guards. The Romans started shouting and cutting their way through. In this confusion, Decius didn't lose a single man he led on this suicide mission. Arriving at the camp, the small detachment of men was greeted with cheering and thunderous applause. When Cornelius launched into a speech praising Decius, he was interrupted. Decius urged him to skip the formalities and attack the Semnites while they were in this state of confusion. The consul agreed and the army rushed out of the camp. Most of the Semnites were still scattered around the valley, some unable to find arms to protect themselves. They were easily routed and their camp was plundered. Amidst the celebration, Decius was presented with the unprecedented two grass crowns. One from the army he rescued and one from the small detachment of men he led to safety. The grass crown was the highest honor a Roman soldier could receive. It was presented to a commander whose actions saved an entire legion or an army. The grass crown was presented by the army that was saved by the commander, which made it the rarest military honor in Rome. Seldom did the proud Roman soldiers admit that they were saved by anything other than their own courage and resolve. Furious with these defeats, the Semnites gathered all the routed forces and, once more, marched into Campania. Valerius, leading the whole Roman army, encamped near Suessula. They were limited by the surrounding terrain and thus built an unusually small camp. When the Semnites, by now accustomed to Roman military doctrine, approached the camp, they assumed that the force inside was fairly small. They encircled the camp and sent out foraging parties. When the Romans noticed scattered Semnites running aimlessly around the fields, they rushed out and utterly defeated the unprepared enemy. Livy reports that some 40,000 men perished on that day. With this, the First Semnite War came to a close. Returning to the city, both consuls celebrated the triumph and special honors were awarded to Decius. These victories were so notable that the Carthaginians sent a delegation to congratulate the Senate and present them with the golden crown that was placed in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. On the request from their allies, garrisons were placed in Capua and Suessa to protect them from any further Semnite incursions. It will not shock you to learn that Livy took many creative liberties with this story. The surrender of the Capuans to the Roman Senate greatly resembles the Corcyrian debate, described in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, when Corcyria allied with Athens to defeat Corinth. It's unlikely that the Semnites could so utterly defeat the wealthy cities of Campania that they would have to resort to these dire measures. It's believed that the ancient historians were inspired by the events we will soon cover in this series, when Capua betrayed Rome and after a lengthy siege unconditionally surrendered. This reimagining also gave Rome a convenient excuse for breaking a treaty with Somnium. Furthermore, the events of the war seem to be largely fictional as well. They bore a great resemblance to other, more famous set pieces from later wars. Both the First and the Second Semnite Wars start with the invasion of Somnium by a consul named Cornelius. The trapped Roman army resembles the disaster of the Chaudin Forks from the Second Semnite War, and the intervention of Decius resembles the sacrifice of 300 men led by a military tribune that saved the Roman army during the First Punic War. These numerous inconsistencies led some historians to believe that the First Semnite War didn't happen at all, but current historians do agree that war must have happened, although the extent of it is unknown. It's doubtful that any Roman historian would imagine events so unfavorable to Rome. Also, we can assume that strong Roman presence in Campania wouldn't go unnoticed by the Semnites. Having said this, we should return to our story. Soldiers wintering in Campania grew jealous of easy life on the fertile plains, and dangerous whispers began to spread throughout the garrison. Why wouldn't the brave people of Rome, who defended this land, enjoy what this land could offer them? When the consul caught wind of this, he tried to put down this rebel by transferring soldiers to Rome and other encampments. Unfortunately, this had the opposite effect. The conspirators realized they were in grave danger and assembled on the Elven hill. Only thing they were missing now was a capable military commander. Arrogant soldiers refused to submit to any man of equal rank. During these quarrels, they heard a rumor that an old general, Titus Quinctius, retired to a farm not far from the hill. A delegation was sent to him, and with a little persuasion, convinced him to lead this rebellion. Content with their new leadership, the army marched out towards Rome. They were intercepted eight miles south of the city by Marcus Valerius Corvus, who had been nominated dictator to stop them. When the two armies met, Valerius refused to draw his sword against his fellow Romans. He implored them to step down and abandon this foolish cause. When Titus Quinctius then joined the dictator in condemning these acts, the soldiers snapped out of their madness and laid down their arms. Valerius requested pardon for the soldiers, and not a single man was hurt in retribution. Even Livy acknowledges that the ancient sources do not agree on events that perspired after the end of the First Semite War. Only thing they could agree with was the fact that there was a rebellion and that it was quickly subdued. When the next campaigning season started, who was consul for that year, raised an army and marched into Somnium. He encountered no resistance, so the soldiers started ravaging the fields. Semnite envoys came to him to request peace, and he referred them to the Senate. The envoys presented their demands and the Senate, weary of war, agreed to reinstate the peace treaty. Their allies, however, didn't think that this treaty referred to them, and marched into Somnium under the Latin leadership. The Semnites took offense with this and requested that the Romans stop this invasion, but they refused to intervene. Latins saw this as an admission of weakness, and decided that the time was ripe for renegotiating their place in the alliance. For years now, the Latins were equal participants in all the wars, but they received little glory and even fewer spoils. As they made up half the Roman army, they saw themselves as equals to Romans. The meetings of the Latin League were held in secret, where they were discussing further course of action, but the news of these proceedings still reached Rome. Leaders of the Latin League were promptly summoned to appear before the Senate. It was agreed that the Latins would demand that one of the consuls be elected from their number, and that half the senators are Latins from now on. Lucius Annius was chosen to present these demands in Rome. He was a passionate man, and he forgot himself while addressing the Senate, speaking like a conqueror and not like a protected diplomat. His speech enraged the consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, who threatened to personally kill any Latin would-be senator who dared to enter Rome. He then reminded Annius of countless Roman victories over the Latins, the destruction of Alba by King Tullus, campaigns of King Tarquinius, and the crushing defeat at the Battle of Lake Regulus. Livy informs us that during the shouting match that ensued, Annius, conveniently, slipped and hit his head on a hard rock. For Manlius, this was a sign that the gods have declared war on the Latins, and that the Romans should follow suit. Two armies were levied, and they marched out of the city in a hurry. One was led by Torquatus, and the other by Lucius Decius, who earned his acclaim during the First Semnite War. They were joined by an unlikely ally. It was clear that another war was brewing between the two chief powers of central Italy, the Romans and the Semnites. Both sides agreed that it would be best that the Latins were subdued, so they wouldn't even think of intervening in the inevitable conflict. The armies encamped near Cepua, where the Latins and their allies, the Volsci, the Aurinci, and the Campanians were amassing their forces. In the quiet of the night, both consuls had the same vision. A godly figure appeared in their dream, and announced that an army whose commander sacrificed himself in battle would prevail. Both generals wanted this honor, so it was agreed that each of them would command one flank of the army. The consul, whose side gives way first, will then charge into the enemy line, thus performing Devotio. Devotio was a form of ritual sacrifice in ancient Rome, in which a Roman general devoted his own life in exchange for victory. The Latins would prove to be a difficult enemy. Years of fighting side by side made the Latin army indistinguishable from the Roman. They had the same fighting style, the same tactics, and even the same language. The men knew each other personally from years of fighting together. In the heat of the battle, men could be easily confused, so it was paramount that the soldiers were disciplined. Manlius gave the order that no man is allowed to leave his post, under the threat of death. It just so happened that his son, Titus Manlius, was leading a scouting party. When they drew close to the enemy line, he was recognized by the Latin commander, who challenged him to single combat. Fearing that declining this duel would hurt his reputation, he foolishly accepted. Titus easily defeated his foe and returned to the cheers of his men. Not realizing the foolishness of his deeds, he reported everything to his father. Manlius was now forced to choose between his obligations to his house and obligations to Rome itself. On one hand, his son had one glory for his family, and on the other, he disobeyed direct orders from the consul and undermined the entire state. To the astonishment and horror of all soldiers, Manlius personally executed his son. He then gave him a hero's funeral, presenting him with all the honors of a true Roman champion, thus fulfilling obligations of both state and family. Although the soldiers despised Manlius, not a single instance of misconduct was reported from that day forth. The two armies met at the foot of the Mount Vesuvius. Tetius was leading the Roman left, and Manlius the right. When the fighting had finally begun, neither side would give any ground. Never in Roman history did the legions fight an opponent so evenly matched. Eventually, the Roman left started giving ground, and Tetius, remembering his dream, leapt onto his horse. He charged into the enemy line, killing many Latins that stood in his way. When he was finally killed, the prophecy was fulfilled, and the reinvigorated Romans pressed forth. The Latin army scattered, and the survivors gathered at the city of Vescia. In this story, the ancient authors present another instance of kinslaying, showing us that the men in bygone eras of Rome valued the Republic more than their own families. Just like Brutus killed his sons for treason, so did Manlius kill his son for disobedience. Perhaps they believed these stories could awaken in their readers the fervent patriotism of the time when the Republic faced great peril. Furthermore, Livy questions the actions of Tetius, believing his sacrifice was in vain. He believed that any army that was commanded by Manlius would have taken the victory on that day. Modern historians believe that the life of Tetius was embellished with events from the previous episode to make this sacrifice more meaningful. With this, we return to the Latins who gathered at Vescia. There they deliberated on their next move. Numisius believed that both armies had suffered equally, and the Roman victory was in name only. But, while the Romans were far from home, they could easily gather more troops from the Latins and the Volscians. The leaders agreed, and the orders were sent to assemble the men with great haste. When the army was ready, Numisius marched them out of Vescia and met the Romans in the Battle of Trifania. The Latin alliance was so utterly defeated that they unconditionally surrendered. The territory in Latium and Campania was divided among the Roman plebs. The next year and a half were spent besieging individual towns in Latium. Those that surrendered immediately, or didn't join the rebellion at all, were given full Roman citizenship. Those that fought a little before surrendering were allowed to keep intermarriage and trade rights, but were denied the vote. Those that led the rebellion and refused to were severely dealt with. Their cities were destroyed, and the men were banished. Colonists were then sent to occupy that land. This again greatly increased the Roman population. The Latin League was dissolved once and for all, and a separate Latin identity was destroyed. This was the last war the Latins waged against Rome. This model of conquest was used by the Romans throughout history. Those nations that were friendly to Rome had preferential treatment and enjoyed greater autonomy. On the other hand, the nations that resisted the Roman legions were utterly destroyed, the most notable examples being the complete demolition of Carthage and the Gallic Genocide conducted by Julius Caesar. In the aftermath of the Latin War, the Romans enjoyed a period of peace. During this time, the collective Roman saci continued to evolve, from a close-knit community defending their city from invaders, to conquerors eager to expand their power and influence. In these generations, we can see the first traces of the growing ambitions of an empire. The Samnites were unlucky enough to be the first target of these ambitions. There was one problem, though. As the Romans were a superstitious bunch, they observed omens concerning all matters of public and private life. This meant that they could only wage war if the gods supported them. In other words, they In their own eyes, the Romans were never the aggressors. Rather, they always had an excuse for why the war in question was defensive in nature. Of course, these justifications for war could be as banal as a perceived insult. They could even be fabricated when the need arose. Therefore, the Romans settled the city of Regula inside the Samnite territory in hopes of provoking a response. But while that was going on, the Samnites were busy elsewhere, and they didn't take the bait. Fortunately, the Romans didn't have to wait long for another opportunity to arise. The citizens of the Greek town Neapolis attacked the Romans living in Campania. Considering that Neapolis was under the Samnite influence at the time, the Romans requested reprisal from the Samnites. They, of course, refused, citing the recent settlement of Reguli. In response, the consul Quintus Poblilius Philo was sent to deal with the pesky Greeks. Interestingly, during this campaign, a new office was created in the Roman political system. After arriving in Campania, Philo set siege to Neapolis. Good positioning from the general isolated the Greeks from their allies, and it was only a matter of time before the city fell. The siege dragged on a bit, and Philo's term in office had expired. Realizing that revoking the commander would have a negative effect on the course of the war, the senate created the office of the pro consul. The pro consul acted on behalf of the consul, giving him absolute authority over the army, but he was still subordinate to an actual consul. This allowed Philo to take the without interruptions. In the end, the Romans got their wish, although in a roundabout way. In the year 327 BCE, the Second Samnite War had started in earnest. The following year, Lucius Furius Camillus and Junius Brutus Cava were elected consuls. Brutus led an army against the Westinians who allied with the Samnites, while Camillus marched on the Samnites themselves. But before any serious fighting could take place, Camillus fell ill and was recalled to Rome. There, he nominated a dictator, Lucius Papirius Cursor, to take his place. He then chose Quintus Fabius Rullianus as his master of the horse. Soon after taking command, the dictator was summoned back to Rome. The priest noticed an irregularity with the omens and demanded that Papirius retake auspices. While he was gone, he ordered Fabius to avoid contact with the enemy. But awaiting the dictator's return, Fabius heard reports of the carelessness of the army. Seizing this opportunity, he ordered a sudden charge upon the enemy. His victory was swift and complete. Livy reports that 20,000 Samnites perished on that day. In his arrogance, Fabius gathered all the spoils from the battle and burned them to prevent Papirius from using them in his triumph. While Papirius was addressing the senate, the news of these events reached Rome. Furious, he dismissed the senate and marched off to deal with his master of the horse. Papirius saw this as an act of disobedience and he was bent on vengeance. Arriving at the camp, he summoned the assembly. In front of the whole army, he chastised Fabius, accusing him of rebellion against the dictator and the whole state. When Fabius in turn accused Papirius of pettiness and jealousy, the lictors were ordered to whip the master of the horse. But the army sided with the young general who led them to a glorious victory. The soldiers were ready to mutiny, but the knight put an end to these proceedings. In the night, Fabius escaped to Rome and asked his father, Marcus Fabius Ambustus for help. His father was a respected man, thrice a consul and once a dictator, so his words carried immense weight. On his advice, the senate met to discuss the events that perspired at the camp. While Fabius was explaining the ruthlessness of the dictator, he entered the senate house. He learned of Fabius' escape and he too rode through the Papirius demanded that Fabius be arrested immediately, but the entire senate pleaded with him to reconsider. The tribunes and the people joined the senators, but still, he would not budge. It was only when Fabius and his father fell on their knees and begged for forgiveness that he relented and pardoned the young man. He ordered Fabius to stay in the city and return to the camp. He didn't receive a warm welcome, as the army was still bitter about the whole ordeal. The very next day, the Semnites engaged the army. It is reported that Papirius had shown great military prowess and care in preparing his army. The ground he chose for this engagement, the positioning of his men, and the tactics employed were all impeccable. If only his men showed the same enthusiasm and vigor, the Semnite war could have been brought to a close on that day. Instead, showing their contempt for the dictator, the men deliberately threw away an easy victory. Realizing he couldn't win a war without an army, Papirius changed his approach. He strolled across the camp, visiting wounded soldiers and commending them on their deeds. This soon turned the army back to his side. When the men were ready, he fought another battle with the Semnites, winning a decisive victory this time. The Semnites had no choice but to surrender to the dictator, who referred them to the senate. Papirius would go on to have a long Livy even compared him to Alexander the Great, who would die only a few years after these events. Livy believed that Rome would withstand the invasion from Alexander, if he ever tried to conquer Rome. But we will soon see how an actual Greek army did against the Romans. While all of this was going on, the second consul Brutus carried out a successful campaign in Vestinia. Following a crushing defeat on the battlefield, the Vestinians abandoned their camp and scattered across the countryside, hoping to find shelter inside the city walls. Brutus then successfully besieged one town after another. When the Semnites eventually sued for peace, the senate imposed a set of frankly ridiculous demands that the Semnites could not accept. This meant that the fighting would continue while the Romans still held the advantage. The following years were filled with light skirmishes and plundering of the Semnite territory, but no major battles were recorded. We will now fast forward to the year 321 BCE when Titus Vetturius Calvinus and Spurius Postumius Albinus were elected consuls. On the other side we have the first named Semnite commander, Gaius Pontius. Pontius marched his armies in great secrecy towards Cadium. There he hid his camp and sent out men disguised as shepherds to graze some cattle near Calatia, where the Roman army was encamped. If the Romans captured them, they were ordered to tell the same story. The whole of the Semnite army was besieging Luceria and its capture was imminent. Luceria was a Roman ally and they had to act to prevent people in Apulia from siding with the Semnites. The Romans took the bait and believing that the time was of the essence, they decided to take a shorter route that would lead them through the Caudine Forks. Caudine Forks is a grassy plain surrounded by mountains on all sides. The only way in or out are two narrow mountain passes placed on each side. The Romans rushed through the first pass without noticing anything. When they reached the other side, they found that large boulders and felled trees blocked the pass. Above the pass, they noticed Semnite warriors observing them. A hasty retreat was made and the army soon reached the entrance, but it was also blocked. A makeshift barricade was erected and armed guards were stationed above the pass. The Romans could see the writing on the wall. They were trapped, and trying to fight their way out was hopeless. While lamenting their desperate situation, they built a fortified camp. Pontius was at a loss for what to do in this fortunate situation and he sent messengers to his father to ask for advice. His message was, let the Romans depart at once, uninjured. Pontius knew that his father was no friend to the Romans, so he sent messengers again to confirm this was really his advice, but this time they returned with a different message, kill every last one of them. Utterly confused, Pontius sent for his father. When his father arrived, he explained that both messengers were correct. Pontius had only two options now. The better option was to let the Romans go and earn lasting gratitude and friendship from the most powerful city in the region. His other option was to kill every man and cripple Rome for a generation. Despite the sound advice from the old man, the Semnites chose the third and by far the worst option they could. The Romans would be freed, but they would have to forfeit their weapons and pass under a yoke. Passing under a yoke was seen as a great insult and a sign of submission in the ancient world. As the old man warned, this act didn't win them any friends, nor did it get rid of any enemies. Furthermore, the Semnites imposed a harsh peace treaty on the Romans that the Senate would have to rectify. As security, 600 Aquaids were held as hostages. The army marched in complete silence back to Rome. During the Senate proceedings, discussing these events and subsequent treaties, Spurius Postumius urged the Senators to decline the proposal. He proposed that all the religious obligations lay on him and not the people of Rome. That meant that he alone could return the Carin forks and surrender to the Semnites. This would then annul the treaty in the eyes of the gods. He was commanded for his proposal and the Senate agreed to decline the treaty and send him and the other commanders back to the Semnites. When they arrived before Pontius and offered themselves in return for refusing the peace treaty, he was furious. Pontius refused to take them as prisoners, letting them walk away as free men. He demanded that all of Rome's legions be returned to the Carin forks or that the peace treaty be respected. He believed that this bad faith interpretation of the law of nations would backfire for the Romans. On the other hand, the Romans believed that their obligations to the Semnites and to the gods were now discharged and they returned to Rome. Pontius only now realized that the third option was indeed the worst possible at the time. This turn of events is of course questioned. The surrender of Postumius resembles yet another event from the First Punic War, when a surrendered general urged the Senate to keep fighting and return to Carthage, knowing full well what awaited him there. In the aftermath of the disaster at Carin forks, there is a five-year gap in hostilities between the two nations. We will leave it for you to decide whether this was due to an unfavorable peace treaty or due to the Romans simply binding their time waiting for a good opportunity. Ancient sources claim that during this peace, in 318 BCE, the cities of Apulia voluntarily surrendered to Rome, but this date is unclear. When the peace was finally broken in 316 BCE, the Romans sent out multiple armies in different directions. The first consul, Lucius Papirius Cursor, was sent to besiege the Semnites who captured Luceria. The second consul, Quintus Poblilius Philo, was sent to besiege Saticula in Campania. And finally, the dictator Fabius Rulianus was sent to Satricum to deal with rebelling Volscians. This splitting of the forces would prove disastrous for the Romans. When the dictator recovered Satricum, he received a report of a large Semnite army heading towards Latium. Ancient sources didn't name the commander of this army, but some modern historians speculate it was led by none other than Gaius Pontius. It's unclear if he defeated Philo in battle or simply outmaneuvered him, but nevertheless he had a clear path to the undefended Latin cities. Rulianus was now the only general close enough to intervene. He decided to split his force in two. He would guard the inland path to Rome himself, while his master of the horse, Quintus Aulius, would guard the coastal path. Semnites decided to go south in order to split Rome from their Greek allies. They met Aulius in the battle of Lautuli near Terracina. Aulius commanded the force of fresh recruits, and his army was no match for the battle-hardened Semnites. The army was completely destroyed, and Quintus Aulius was killed. The Roman forces were in shambles, and the Semnite army roamed free. They convinced Auruncans and Campanians to rebel against their overlords. Fabius Rulianus was doing all he could to protect the roads leading directly to Rome. Although his efforts were successful and the attack on Rome was avoided, this left many cities undefended, and they fell to the Semnite forces. These events left Rome in a precarious position, and its fate would have been sealed if not for the reorganization of the army during the Caudine Peace. In the five years following the battle, the Romans adopted the Semnite three-line maniples system. They also introduced a system of trained reserves that gave them quick access to a large number of troops after a crushing defeat. This meant that the force besieging Luceria didn't have to be recalled, which would prove crucial and turn the tide of this war. In 314 BCE, a Spartan general leading a mercenary army landed in Tarentum. His primary goal was to aid the Greeks in their struggle against the tyrant Agathocles of Syracuse, but nothing was stopping him from roaming the Italian countryside. Although his foray into Italy would be short-lived, Semnites had no way of knowing that and had to act. If this army combined with the Romans in Apulia, they would pose a significant threat. Semnites had to redirect part of their force from Latium to the east. This left the general outnumbered in hostile lands. Combined Roman armies numbering four legions engaged the Semnites near Terracina and dealt them a crushing blow. Having dealt with the Semnite threat, the Romans marched their army south and crushed the revolt. They had no mercy for the rebels, and Aruncans were eradicated. Next year, the Romans recaptured all lost territory in Latium and subdued the rebels in Campania. Now Rome was on the offensive and armies started making forays into Semnite territory. Fearing the sudden revival of the Roman legions, the Etruscans allied with the Semnites and declared a sudden war. It's unclear why the Etruscans didn't attack Rome while it was on its knees, but rather waited for legions to recover. Some modern historians speculate that this was due to a friendly relationship between Rome and Carthage at the time. We should also note that the Etruscans were not completely united. Cities of northern Etruria had no interest in fighting a costly war against faraway Rome. Nevertheless, this declaration of war was not taken lightly in Rome. Roman forces were again spread thin and panic ensued in the city. During this crisis, a dictator was nominated and all of the fighting-age men were ordered to take up arms. We should now take a break from Roman foreign affairs and examine events that perspired at home. In 312 BCE, Appius Claudius, a descendant of the famous Appius Claudius who led the Decemvirs in writing the Twelve Tables, was elected as one of the two censors. The main duty of the censor was deciding who could vote in Roman elections and who could serve in the Senate. According to customs, the censors would just reaffirm last year's lists, but Appius decided to break with customs and stacked both the Senate and the voting blocks with men loyal to him. Appalled by his actions, the second censor stepped down, believing this would stop Appius. According to the sacred laws, if one of the censors couldn't perform his duties anymore, the second would step down and two new censors would be elected, but once more he disregarded tradition and held the office anyway. It is said that he proceeded to act against a family he disliked, taking their sacred rights and giving them to temple servants. For these actions, the gods punished him with blindness and he earned the nickname Cekus, meaning the blind, although this account doesn't hold up with other sources that don't mention his blindness until much later in his life. After filling the Senate with loyal men and dealing with rival families, he started work on his ultimate project. During the First Semnite War, a need for a road connecting Rome and Campania was apparent. Although victorious, the Romans constantly had problems with maneuvering their troops from north to south and with supplying those troops once deployed. Considering the Romans had their hands full, first with the Latin War and then with the outbreak of the Second Semnite War, the resources needed to construct this road could not be spared. But now the time was ripe and Appius started construction on this road that would later bear his name, Via Appia. The first section of this road passed through the Pontine Marshes and connected Rome to Capua. Eventually, this road would be extended all the way to Brandisium in the south of Italy. Appius then constructed the first Roman aqueduct, which would also bear his name, Aqua Appia. Having finished the road, the troops could now easily pass between the northern and southern parts of the Republic. They didn't have to This allowed them to quickly end the Semnite Wars and later conquer all of Italy. With this road, the Romans would recognize the importance of logistics, which would play a big part in later expansions out of Italy. Appius Claudius held on to the office of censor for five consecutive years, which was unheard of at the time. During this time, he extended the voting rights to landless citizens. This and his other generous policies endeared him to the masses, and his blatant abuse of power was ignored. After finally stepping down from his post as censor, he would go on to serve as consul twice and dictator once. In his later career, he would be known for opposing Pyrrhus of Epirus during his invasion, but we are getting ahead of ourselves. After 311 BCE, when hostilities with the Etruscans started, Romans filled in two completely separate armies. One was dealing with Semnites in the south, while the other was dealing with Etruscans in the north. It speaks volumes that Rome was able to not only keep both fronts active at the same time, but actually emerge victorious on both sides. In 310 BCE, Quintus Fabius Rulianus, who was master of the horse only a few years prior, was elected consul. He led one of the armies north to attack the Etruscan army that was besieging Sutrium. The Etruscans were easily defeated and most of the men ran into the Seminian forest. This forest was the stuff of legends and it's said that until that point, not a single Roman dared to enter it. Livy even compares it to the dreaded German forests that were feared throughout the whole empire in his time. Nevertheless, Fabius decided to follow the Etruscans in order to crush the whole army. While the army was deep inside the forest, the other consul, Marcius Rutilus, invaded Samnium. The Semnites met him near Alife and indecisive battle was fought. A large number of high-ranking Romans were killed and the consul himself was wounded. When the senate caught wind of these events, they panicked and nominated Papirius Cursor dictator, who then raised another army. It is then that Fabius emerged from the Seminian forest. He not only defeated the large Etruscan army and forced a peace treaty on towns in northern Etruria, but also secured an alliance with the Umbrians. He was shocked to learn that his command was given to the man who wanted to execute him only a few years ago, but he put aside his personal grievances and submitted to the dictator. Papirius combined the two armies and marched south to deal with the Semnites. Livy mentions that the four greatest generals of that generation were all present on the battlefield. Papirius Cursor as the dictator, Marcus Valerius Corvus on the right flank, Publius Decius Mus on the left flank, and Junius Bavulcus, who we haven't yet mentioned, but who was an important figure during the Second Semnite War as the master of the horse. Together they dealt a crushing blow to the Semnites. After this battle, the war changed into a series of small border skirmishes that would last for another six years. In 310 BCE, the Romans also dealt with the Etruscans in the Battle of Lake Vadimo. Not much is known about this battle, but it's believed that it was the largest fought between the two nations. The battle was an astounding Roman victory and the power of the Etruscans, who for so long dominated northern Italy, was destroyed. They would never again pose a significant threat to Rome. The Semnites were a mountain people and they didn't have many large population centers that Romans could attack. Instead, they had to capture territory bit by little bit, secure it, and move on to a new patch of land. The constant skirmishes around Semnium were going in Roman favor. They could not score a major victory, but each year the Semnites' resolve was waning. Finally, in 305 BCE, combined armies of two consuls defeated a large Semnite army and captured Bovianum, the Semnite capital. Exhausted by the war, the Semnites sued for peace the very next year. After they surrendered, many bordering tribes pleaded their allegiance to Rome. This included Marsi, Peligni, Marusini, Frentani, and later Vestini. Equi and Hernici were almost completely destroyed for their part in the Second Semnite War. As we have stated in the last video, the Roman ambitions of an empire emerged during the 4th century BCE, but they were about to kick into high gear. In ancient warfare, the number of men was generally far more important than the tactics, equipment, and the skill of those men. According to some sources, by the end of the 4th century BCE, the Romans had access to up to 500,000 troops. Comparing that to the relatively modest number of 50,000 men Alexander used to conquer the known world, or the force of 100,000 Persians who invaded Greece, we can see what made allegiance unstoppable. These astronomical numbers come mostly from the large number of conquered people. Although the maps show the Romans controlling vast swathes of territory, these peoples were mostly self-governing. The Romans avoided directly managing their allies, instead they had only one obligation, to provide fighting men when called upon. Although this web of alliances provided Rome with the manpower needed for this aggressive expansion, it's unclear what caused this shift in perspective. Perhaps the scars of the Gallic sect were so deep that the Romans vowed to never again allow something similar to happen. Perhaps the Romans saw themselves as superior to everyone and only took their god-given rights, or perhaps it was some other reason we will never know. On the other hand, the conflict of the orders did a lot more in Rome than simply ending the discrimination of the plebs. It transferred the governing power from those who were born into it, namely the patricians, to those who earned it through their deeds and accomplishments. Of these, military victories were the most highly praised, so perhaps it was the ambitious men chasing fame and glory who inadvertently expanded Rome's borders. In the aftermath of the Second Semnite War, the Romans acted as if they had already conquered both Etruria and Samnium. They would send armies to Rome freely across their territory and settle colonies where they pleased. The Semnites could see the writing on the wall. If they didn't act soon, they would be reduced to a footnote in history, as just another Italian tribe that was swept away by the Romans. When a Semnite army invaded Lucania, the Lucanians requested a closer alliance with Rome to guarantee their safety. This was accepted by the Senate and envoys were sent into Samnium to request that their armies be withdrawn immediately. The envoys were dismissed with the threat of violence and a war was declared. Thus the Third and the last Semnite War started in 298 BCE. A year prior, the Etruscans had already provoked Rome to war when they bribed a Gallic tribe to help them invade Rome. The Gauls took the gold and returned home, leaving Etruscans to fend for themselves. Rome was again fighting a war on two fronts, but by now Romans could easily field two great armies. Livy states that the first consul, Scipio Barbatus, grandfather of the famous Scipio Africanus, marched his forces into Etruria and there won a decisive victory near Volterra. He then avoided fortified towns and his army was free to pillage the countryside. The second consul, Neus Fulvius, marched his forces into Samnium and plundered Aufidana without much resistance from the Semnites. Interestingly, the tomb of Scipio Barbatus survived to this day. It was constructed some 150 years after these events. On the sarcophagus, there is an inscription describing his deeds and none of it mentions anything about Etruria. It rather describes his invasion into Samnium from the east and his actions in Lucania. This inscription predates Livy, so we can assume it's more credible. There is evidence that Scipio Barbatus was serving in Etruria in 295 BCE, so perhaps some of his accomplishments in Etruria belong to that year. But for now, we should return to the story as told by Livy. In 297 BCE, Romans were preparing for war and looked to their best commander, Fabius Maximus Rulianus, by now an old man and a seasoned general. Fabius was reluctant to take up the post of consul due to his old age, but the people were keen to have him in command. He cited a law forbidding a man to serve as consul within ten years of his last elections, but the tribunes made an exemption for him and he was unanimously elected. Accepting his post, he made an appeal to the people to elect Publius Decius Mus, son of the famous Decius who devoted himself in the Latin War, as his colleague. The two men had previously served together and had an amicable relationship. The people accepted his proposal and Decius was elected as the second consul. Hearing that the Etruscans were preparing to offer peace, both consuls marched their armies into Samnium. They fought several skirmishes that went in their favor, but there is no record of any large battles being fought that year. The consul spent the rest of the year plundering Samnite fields. After the end of the campaigning season, Fabius returned to Rome and organized the next elections. People were expecting a big clash with the Samnites sooner or later, so they once more wanted to elect Fabius. He again rejected in fear of setting a dangerous precedent. This time the people gave in and in his place elected Appius Claudius of the Appian Way and the plebeian Lucius Volumnius. While this was happening, his colleague Decius was still serving as pro-consul in Samnium. He dislodged the large Samnite army led by Gelius and Attius, who refused to fight the Romans and fled into Etruria. There he met with Etruscan leaders and implored them to keep fighting against Rome. This time, almost all Etruscan towns agreed to join the fighting and an alliance was formed. The Umbrians also joined this alliance, and even the Gauls living in the Po valley were employed as mercenaries. Together, these four nations would wage a war against Rome, which would determine the fate of Italy. Appius Claudius was sent to Etruria and Volumnius to Samnium. The Samnite army was still abroad, so Volumnius proceeded to plunder the land. But then he received a message from Etruria – Appius was in danger and he required his help immediately. Volumnius packed up his camp and marched his forces to Etruria with great haste. When he arrived at the camp, Appius was furious. Being a proud patrician, he rejected the notion that he would ever request help from a mere plebeian. Insulted, Volumnius turned to leave, but he was stopped by the army. Exhausted and in bad shape, they begged him to stay and help them. Seeing that the army was indeed in dire need, he swallowed his pride and submitted his forces to Appius. Ecstatic, the army rushed out of the camp to attack the enemy immediately. It just so happened that the Samnite general was out with a foraging party and his army was not prepared for a sudden onslaught. On the other hand, the consuls didn't have enough time to arrange their troops into formation and an all-around sloppy battle was fought. In the end, the Romans won and scattered the Samnite forces. After the victory, Volumnius was dispatched to Campania to deal with the Samnite raiding party. Whilst he was chasing that army laden with plunder, the Samnite army in Etruria regrouped under Gelius and Attius. They were then joined by the Etruscans, the Umbrians and the Gauls. Reports of this massive army caused great panic in Rome. Every free man in the city, who could carry a sword, was armed and preparations to defend the city were made. The panic was eased a little when reports of Volumnius' success reached them. When the elections rolled around, Volumnius was recalled to administer them. Before the voting commenced, he gave a speech about the poor state of things in Etruria and ensured the people that if Fabius Maximus Rulianus was not elected, he would nominate him as dictator at once. Now the whole of the Roman populace looked up to Fabius as their saviour and he again accepted the consulship and requested that Datius served alongside him. This was agreed and in 295 BCE, Fabius and Datius were elected as consuls together for the third time. Volumnius continued to serve as pro-consul and Apius as praetor. Other former consuls, including Scipio Barbatus, served as pro-praetors. At least six different armies could be identified this year and some authors suppose that the Romans fielded as many as 100,000 men in total. The patrician senators were keen to send Fabius, one of their number, to Etruria without drawing the lots. This did not sit well with Datius and he protested. Fabius claimed that it was he who created a path through the previously impassable Simenian forest and that it should be he who continued the war on that front. In the end, the people settled the matter by sending Fabius to Etruria. There Fabius learned that the state of the matter was far worse than anyone realized. An enormous four-nation army was looming large in the area and the men were scared for their lives. He decided to tear down his camp and reposition his army as frequently as possible. When the winter passed without incident, he returned to Rome, gave a solemn report to the senate and requested that Datius and his army move into Etruria to aid him. Although their relationship was soured, Datius agreed to help his colleague and marched his forces into Etruria. Both armies set up their camp near Sentinum in preparation for the battle. In the Semnite camp, it was agreed that the Gauls and the Semnites would engage the Romans, while the Etruscans and Umbrians attacked their camp. They believed that the Romans would see that their camp was taken and there was no possibility for retreat. This would then break their morale and they would scatter. Unfortunately for them, some Gallic deserters relayed this information to Fabius. The council then sent orders to a neighboring army to start pillaging the Etruscan countryside. The Etruscan army could not stand by while their homeland was being ravaged and they abandoned the camp in pursuit of the Roman raiders. It's unclear what happened to the Umbrians, but it appears they also left before the battle. Fabius decided it was time to strike now, with the Semnite coalition weakened and the two armies took to the field. Fabius commanded the left flank opposite the Semnites and Decius commanded the Roman right opposite the Gauls. This was the largest battle fought in Italy at the time. Some estimates put the number of troops at 40,000 men on each side. Livy states that the armies were so evenly matched that if the Etruscans were present at the time, the Romans would surely be defeated. The two Roman commanders had different approaches to commanding their respective legions. Decius, a young and ambitious man, believed the enemy could be crushed by force alone. On the other hand, Fabius, a seasoned general, knew that the enemy came on strong at first but could not sustain that level of fighting for long. His only goal was to hold his legion against this initial onslaught. Decius, seeing that the line was not moving, ordered a chivalry charge in hope of earning everlasting glory for himself. His charge was futile and the Gallic line could not be broken. It all ended in disaster when the horses, running away from the battle, slammed into the Roman lines. The left was on the brink of collapse and Decius, remembering the sacrifice of his father in the Latin War, devoted himself in the same manner by charging alone into the Gallic lines. This reinvigorated his men and they held their ground. While that was going on, Fabius noticed that the Semites were finally starting to tire out. They were lacking the same vigor they possessed at the start of the battle. He then ordered his second line to advance. This finally broke the Semite lines and they made for the camp. Fabius then ordered part of his force to aid in the struggle against the Gauls who were still standing ground while the other part was in hot pursuit of the Semites. The Gauls could not hold for long against the two-pronged assault and they quickly fell. At the same time, the Semite general Gelius Anatius was killed in front of the camp and the camp, along with all the spoils, was taken shortly. Livy reports that 20,000 men were killed and a further 8,000 made prisoners, while the Romans lost around 9,000. While Fabius held a funeral for his colleague, pro praetor Neos Fulvius defeated the Etruscan army. Remnants of the Semnite force tried to retreat back to Samnium, but they were attacked by the Peligni and lost a further 1,000 men. Appius Claudius was given the command of Decius' army and Fabius returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph. This battle marks a turning point. Although the war would last for another five years, the Allies could pose no significant threat to Rome. The four strongest tribes in Italy united to break Rome's domination, but they failed miserably. The writing was on the walls and it was only a matter of time before the Romans cleared out any remnants of opposition from central Italy. At the beginning of the same year, in 295 BCE, the Romans expanded their influence into Umbria. In 294 BCE, three chief cities of Etruria, Volsini, Perusia, and Aretium, sued for peace and secured a 40-year truce. In 293 BCE, Lucius Papirius Cursor, son of the famous Papirius, hero of the Second Semnite War, and Spurius Carvilius Maximus were elected consuls, and they both led their armies into Samnium. The Semnites ordered a massive levy. Every man of fighting age was ordered to appear before the general, or their life was forfeit. All of them were then summoned to Aquilonia to make their last stand. Around 40,000 men answered the call. In Aquilonia, the Semnites organized the Great Ritual Sacrifice. When it was complete, the general summoned the foremost men among the Semnite nobles. They were then forced to swear an oath to fight until death and kill any man they saw fleeing. Any man who refused was killed and left as an example to others. These men were then ordered to pick their brothers in arms until they reached a number of 16,000 men in total. They formed an elite unit known as the Linen Legion. They were given special equipment to distinguish them from the rest of the army. The consuls parted way in Samnium and besieged different cities. Papirius was the first to reach Aquilonia and he stationed his troops near the city. He decided to engage the enemy before his colleague, who was stationed some 20 miles away at Cominium, could aid him. Before the battle started, Papirius ordered Spurius Nautius, leader of the auxiliary cohorts, to lead his men along with pack animals to circle the enemy and raise as large a dust cloud as possible in the process. The fighting that ensued was savage as both armies were highly motivated. When the second line was exhausted and starting to falter, a large dust cloud appeared on the horizon. Taking the opportunity, Papirius loudly exclaimed that his colleague Carvilius was coming to their aid. The Romans were invigorated by this and there arose a great battle shout, while the Samnites lost their resolve and started to panic. Spurius Nautius, who created the cloud of dust, charged his auxiliaries and the Samnite army was utterly destroyed. Volumnius, who commanded the Roman left, led his men into the Samnite camp and took it with ease, while Scipio Barbatus, who commanded the Roman right, led his men to Aquilonia. The defenders manned the walls and were ready to shower the Romans with arrows, but Scipio ordered his men in a testudo formation and took the city by storm. The Samnites lost upwards of 20 000 men on that day. While this was going on, Carvilius took Cominium and the Roman victory was complete. Samnites had no more standing armies and the consuls proceeded to take several towns in the area without contest. Upon their return to Rome, they celebrated a great charm. Lavish equipment taken from the Linen Legion was truly a sight to behold. With this victory, Livy ends the 10th book of his nominal work, From the Founding of the City, which we used as the primary source in all of our videos. Unfortunately, books 11 through 20 are lost to history and only short epitomes survive to this day. This means that we won't be able to follow his versions of events any longer. Instead, we will have to rely more on our other ancient sources, namely Polybius, Plutarch, Dio Cassius and many others. In the aftermath of the Battle of Aquilonia, the Samnites were all but defeated. With a short delay, attributed to a plague raging in Rome, in 291 BCE Romans captured Bovianum and Venusia, two large population centers. 290 BCE was spent dealing with remaining pockets of resistance across Samnium, thus ending the Third and the last Samnite War. In the same year, the Romans also conquered the Sabines. When the First Samnite War started in 343 BCE, it was a conflict between similarly matched Italian tribes vying for control of rich Greek colonies in Campania. But by the end of the Third Samnite War, some 50 years later, Rome transformed into a chief power in Italy, controlling half the peninsula. These victories set them on an inevitable course that would end in a fight for supremacy over the Mediterranean. Although Samnites were soundly defeated, they would never forget their history. When Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italy, they joined his forces. When Hannibal crossed the Alps, they allied with him. When the Social War broke out, they were quick to join the rebels. But time after time, they were defeated by the Romans. With each defeat, they would lose a part of their resolve and a part of their identity, but we are getting ahead of ourselves. Having defeated the Samnites and secured control of central Italy, the Romans now turned to the south and the rich cities of Magna Graecia. Although separated from the mainland, they still had both military and financial support from Greece. When Pyrrhus of Epirus answered a call to help the Greeks against an Italic tribe, he boarded his ships and set sail to Italy expecting an easy victory. Thanks for watching till the end. If you enjoyed these videos, consider supporting us on Patreon. That will help us make even more of them in the future.