Boudica_ The Woman Who Challenged Rome _ History Makers _ Odyssey

Around the year AD 61, a huge army of fanatical Celtic warriors stormed the settlement at Camulodunum, determined to deliver a crushing blow to their Roman conquerors. In the bloody slaughter which followed, the Romans were shown no mercy. At the head of the Celtic army was a remarkable woman, a leader worshipped by her people and hated by her enemies. Her legend has travelled the centuries as a folk heroine, a champion of freedom, a writer of wrongs and a fearsome leader who so nearly succeeded in driving across the sea the army of the most powerful empire in the world. The woman was Boudicca, queen of the Iceni. In the early part of the first century, British society was rapidly developing. It was comprised of dispersed communities making up many small kingdoms whose peoples had developed from a variety of ethnic backgrounds and as a result of which some lived in stone houses while others lived in more basic accommodation. Celtic settlements grew steadily during this time, often surrounded by earthen fortifications and ditches which protected the inhabitants from wild animals and aggressive enemy tribes. In the east of the country, an area we now know as East Anglia, there lived the hard-working and comparatively wealthy group of Celtic tribes which comprised the kingdom of the Iceni. For the poorer people of the Iceni tribe, life was hard, although they were not malnourished. They were fundamentally farmers who reared domestic animals and had mastered the planting and harvesting of corn, vegetables, and other crops in the fertile lands which surrounded them. Iron technology too at this time had become highly advanced and blacksmiths, artisans, and craftsmen flourished within the community, producing highly ornate and decorated weapons, shields, and jewelry. Many other quality goods produced to high domestic standards by potters, carpenters, and cloth makers enabled the Iceni to establish a strong trading position with neighboring tribes and overseas traders. By the time the Romans arrived in Britain, the landscape here had been under the plough for some three and a half thousand years, so there'd been a lot of development, clearing of the land, and the population had grown to a very considerable level. The societies in Britain consisted of a large number of smallish-sized Celtic tribal states, some of which were ruled by chieftains, some of which were under monarchs, and the general level of technological development was actually very considerable. Ironworking had long been established and weapons of iron especially were very well advanced. People such as the Iceni were also renowned for their distinctive and colorful clothing, for it was the Celts who wore the first trousers which were made of linen or wool. Nobles of the tribe also wore woven linen and woolen cloaks, and tunics of vibrant colors produced from natural dyes. Depending on wealth and position within the tribe, highly decorated clothes with ornate brooches were worn with gold bands and other beautifully crafted jewelry. The women especially were highly groomed, washing often, probably using an early form of soap, and scenting their bodies with local herbs. Early cosmetics using ruum and berry juices were carefully applied, and hair was grown long and dressed up with intricate combs. It is imagined that the Iceni lived in round farmstead houses built of wattle and daub, a mixture of earth, clay, straw, and animal hair, and the larger houses of families of high birth often contained porches, several rooms, and carved pillars wreathed in beautiful rich cloths. The ornate weaponry produced by such people as the Iceni consisted of swords, spears, and daggers, many of which had been handed down from generation to generation, had pride of place in a wealthy Iceni home. These weapons had vital significance in religious festivals and were of paramount spiritual importance as a symbol of free birth. It was in a wealthy house such as this that the young Boudicca was raised and educated as the daughter of a member of a local royal family. Celtic society did recognize the distinction between the sexes, but it was considered that women were equal in both courage and stature to men. Being of higher birth, Boudicca was educated at home, formerly tutored by druids, who were not only the spiritual leaders in Britain, but the only unifying power among the Celts at the time. Their influence over future warriors and leaders was therefore both subtle and profound. It is probable that Boudicca received a comprehensive schooling covering many varied subjects and would have become proficient in chariot driving and spear throwing, enabling her to excel at hunting. Their lightweight wooden chariots were drawn by two small ponies. Contrary to popular belief, the chariots did not have scythes attached to the wheels, for although these would have been lethal to an enemy, they would also have caused havoc as a charioteer withdrew from battle into his own lines. A Roman historian perfectly described the use of the chariot. Chariots are used in the following way. First of all, the charioteers drive all over the field, the warriors hurling javelins, and generally they throw the enemy's ranks into confusion by the terror inspired by their horses and the clatter of their wheels. Then the warriors jump off the chariot and fight on foot. The drivers, meanwhile, slowly withdraw from the action and retire to a position that, should the warriors be hard pressed by their enemy, they may easily get back into their vehicles and retreat into the safety of their own lines. Thus they combine the mobility of the cavalry combined with the steadiness of the infantry. By daily training and practice, they attain such proficiency that even on a steep incline they are able to control their horses at a full gallop and to check and turn them in a moment. They can run along the chariot pole, stand on the yoke, and get back into the chariot as fast as lightning. Boudicca is described as being huge of frame, with a harsh voice and long flowing red hair, although it was probably not much brighter than chestnut. A large gold torque hung from her neck and her long flowing robes were secured by a huge brooch. To those who followed her into battle, the Queen of the Iceni would surely have presented an inspiring sight. We know nothing directly about Boudicca's personality but we can infer quite a lot from her station in life. As a Celtic Queen, we can be pretty sure that she was not going to have been a shy retiring wallflower. She will have been somebody with immense personal pride and dignity, used to giving orders to people, and so will have fairly easily slipped into the role of a leader in war. She also may very well indeed have been a religious leader too among her people. The name Boudicca, as she's popularly known, is in fact one of history's greatest spelling mistakes. She was almost certainly called Boudicca in the original Celtic pronunciation and the Roman historian Tacitus, who's our earliest source for her name, probably wrote it down as Boudicca with two c's and during the course of copying the manuscript during the medieval period, somebody made a mistake and the u became an a and the second c became an e and we ended up with Boadicea. By the time Boudicca was 20, she was almost certainly married. Her husband, Prasutagus, was heir to the Iceni throne and the young Boudicca had probably been betrothed to him at an earlier date. Such a marriage greatly strengthened the position of the kingdom and secured valuable allies for the tribe. Prasutagus was apparently a cautious man, for the records show that during his long and prosperous reign, his primary concern was with the conservation of his wealth and the peaceful development of his kingdom. We may imagine that Boudicca and Prasutagus certainly made a strange combination. He, the mild, older, somewhat gullible monarch, anxious above all things to maintain peace, and she, younger, fiery of temper, outspoken in her views, highly intelligent and warlike by nature. Despite their completely different personalities, however, their marriage was long and successful and Boudicca bore Prasutagus two daughters, who as princesses were afforded great respect by the tribe. For the Iceni, however, the threat of invasion by other tribes was never far away. The ambitious Catuvelorni on the southwest borders were a particular danger and there were many pitched battles between the two tribes. However, the real danger to the Iceni and to Britain as a whole came not from these vicious inter-tribe disputes, but from an enemy many miles away. For Britain had once again become a target for the all-powerful Roman Empire, led by the ruthless Emperor Claudius. He had read and studied Julius Caesar's accounts of the Roman invasion nearly 100 years earlier and he knew Britain was rich in gold, silver, and tin, natural resources in constant demand by the greedy and ever-expanding Roman Empire. Handsome profits could also be made from agricultural goods and the trade in slaves, which a successful invasion would provide. But it was not merely the prospect of material reward which attracted Claudius to the British Isles. To the Romans, Britain was a dark and mysterious place, the homeland to the Druids, whose barbarous people worshipped strange gods. The Celts had long been a thorn in the flesh of Rome, particularly in Gaul, where their mighty war machine had been shaken by the Celtic fanaticism and indifference to death. The Romans had first come to Britain more than a century before the time of Boudicca under the generalship of Julius Caesar. He staged two raids into Britain in 55 and 54 BC and so he gave the Romans their first eyewitness account in his famous commentaries of what the Britons were actually like. The Romans regarded the Britons as being rather fearsome barbarians and one of the things for which they were particularly maybe feared even were their Druids, their Celtic priests, who were famous for practicing human sacrifice. So the Romans had a rather jaundiced view of the ancient Britons and their cousins across the water, the Celtic Gauls, but of course this was to some extent hypocritical because the Romans are quite happy to butcher people in the arena for fun, whereas you could argue that human sacrifice is actually a pious action even if we wouldn't particularly want to get involved in it today. For Claudius then, the task was clear. To conquer and civilize this hostile nation, to add another jewel to the Roman crown, and to enjoy the enormous prestige that a successful invasion would surely bring. To achieve his ambitions, he appointed the able Aeolus Plautius as his military commander for the British expedition in AD 42. Preparations were made throughout 42 and into 43 AD along the coast of Gaul. An armada of ships was fitted out by specialist engineers, blacksmiths, and carpenters, and the holds were filled with weapons, clothes, boots, tools, wine, and other provisions vital to an invading army. Food provisions, however, were kept to a minimum as the Romans naturally presumed they would be able to plunder and forage supplies from the lands they were about to invade. Eventually, a force of around 40,000 troops had completed their preparations and were ready to invade. The Roman army, without doubt, was a formidable force. Perhaps the most efficient and professional fighting machine the world had yet seen. The main thrust of the invasion force consisted of four legions of 5,500 men each. These highly skilled and professional soldiers had signed up with the army for a term of 25 years. Each legionary wore an iron or bronze crested helmet, regulation armor made from iron, and carried a semi-cylindrical shield. His weapons were a heavy throwing javelin called a pilum and a gladius, which was a short stabbing sword. In addition to the legionaries, there were also auxiliary cavalry and infantry, recruited from provinces of the Roman Empire such as Gaul and Spain. Reward for their service was the bestowal of Roman citizenship upon their discharge from the army, and although they were not as highly trained or as well equipped as the legionaries, they were still a potent force. For the fortunate Plotius, an initial delay in invasion due to a mutiny within his army proved fortuitous, and the expectant Britons had returned to their homes, enabling the Roman army to land at Richborough in AD 43 unopposed. By the time the British tribes had heard of the invasion and gathered in force to attack, the Romans had managed to secure a number of bases inland, and had sent messengers to Claudius in Rome declaring a glorious victory. The invaders acted swiftly and mercilessly, marching northwards at great speed, killing and destroying as they went. A violent two-day battle is recorded, and many Celtic tribes, including the Catuvelloni, fought in vain to repel the invaders, but were simply no match for the confident, disciplined Roman army. To many smaller kingdoms, however, the invasion was not entirely unwelcome. Their territories had in the past been threatened by more powerful neighbors, and the arrival of the Romans was seen as an opportunity to live in peace again, even if it did mean paying lip service or taxes to the protectors from Rome. Before long, Claudius had arrived from the continent, much to the delight of his troops, who raised their standards, cheering and hailing him, Imperator, and the Romans marched on towards Camulodunum, crushing all before them. Claudius rode triumphantly into the town, and ordered the construction of a huge temple in commemoration of his triumph, to be known as the Temple of the Divine Claudius. For the defeated local Trinovantes tribe, it was the first terrible indignity, a temple of an alien religion in their kingdom, which they were forced not only to fund, but also to construct. During his stay in Britain, Claudius made peace treaties and pacts with a number of tribes, and the Iceni tribe agreed, in principle, to live within the framework of Roman government. They probably thought that such an arrangement would enable them to maintain their independence, and take advantage of Roman trade and incentives. Along with 10 other tribes, the Iceni agreed, in principle, to become client kingdoms of Rome. A governor, responsible for law and order, and a procurator, who oversaw the collection of taxes for Britain, was swiftly appointed by Claudius. Initially, the client kings and queens of the tribes were allowed to remain in power. This fostered the impression of a smooth transition to Roman authority, an impression furthered by the bestowal of generous grants. In fact, little more than shameless bribes, should there be signs of serious discontent. It was, of course, an extremely effective way for the Romans to maintain complete control over their newly won territory. Naturally, such measures were only intended to be short term, and were made with individual rulers. At the first opportunity, usually upon the death of its monarch, the client kingdom was brought fully under Roman dominance, and all such pretense of normality was abandoned. The appearance, too, of Britain was to change forever, as over the next few years, the country witnessed the construction of the impressive skeleton of long, straight Roman roads, crossing inhospitable forests and terrains, which are still visible to this day. Of course, these highly labour-intensive and ambitious projects took many years to complete, even with the use of specialist army engineers, and probably large teams of conscripted local labour and slaves. But the Romans considered such improvements to the transport and communication systems essential to maintain order. Famous roads such as Watling Street, Fosse Way and Ermine Street were built during this period, enabling a far more efficient and rapid movement of troops throughout the province should the need arise. It was in AD 47 that the first cracks began to appear in the fragile peace between the Romans and their Celtic allies. The decision was taken to disarm some of the suspect tribes within the client kingdoms, the boldest step towards total Roman domination yet taken by the new administration. As we have seen, weaponry was of great spiritual importance to the Iceni people, and its confiscation was the ultimate humiliation for the tribe. If the Romans were aware of this, it made little difference, for systematically, village by village, house by house, searches were carried out and the precious weapons seized by groups of insensitive Roman soldiers. It was the one single act of the Roman authorities which could never go unchallenged. And before very long, a group of Iceni warriors had persuaded some neighbouring tribes to join them in open rebellion. The angry Celts threw up earth ramparts around a flat area of land and in a show of open defiance, challenged the occupying forces to attack them. It was a noble but futile act. The makeshift fort was stormed contemptuously by Roman soldiers and the would-be rebels brutally slaughtered. The remaining Iceni looked on horrified at the cruel butchery and resolved to avenge their murdered tribesmen. They would strike when the moment was ripe. The first step was to order the secret replacement and stockpiling of their weapons. During this period of painstaking preparation, day-to-day life for the Iceni became immeasurably worse as the Romans took further steps to prevent dissension from within the Iceni kingdom. This they achieved by systematically fencing them in, isolating them completely. To add to their woes, the Emperor Claudius was murdered by his wife and his stepson Nero ascended as Emperor. From that day, life became completely unbearable for the Celtic people. It soon became apparent to Nero that Roman investments of time and money in Britain were not reaping the rewards which had been hoped for. Tribal troubles in the west of the country had prevented the exploitation of the silver mines and a fortune was being spent on the ever-present garrisons patrolling the troublesome borders. Britain was rapidly becoming a severe drain on Roman resources. Nero decided the situation must change rapidly. He determined to finally rout and destroy the hated Druids who, since the initial invasion, had retreated to hide in Anglesey. A new governor for Britain was appointed. Suetonius Paulinus was a mature man of action and a highly experienced soldier who enjoyed Nero's full confidence and his task was to completely subjugate the Britons. Claudius invaded Britain basically because he didn't want to die. He'd just been recently made Emperor and he needed a military victory very quickly to gain the loyalty of the army which did not actually know him. He'd always spent his life very much as a private individual away from the limelight. When Nero came to the throne, it does appear possible that there was an assessment being made of whether the conquest of Britain was going as well as the Romans had expected. It seemed to have been taking a lot longer than they'd initially anticipated. Claudius probably thought they'd be able to conquer the island within a few years but here they were best part of 20 years down the road and they still had not actually got any further than really the Midlands and they were still fighting in Wales and it is quite possible that Nero considered abandoning the island but he evidently decided not to as this would have been something of an insult to the memory of his immediate predecessor. Having arrived in Britain, Suetonius assessed the situation with care. The capital Camulodunum was tucked away amongst the unarmed and peaceful client kingdoms and was being confidently administered by the latest procurator Cetus Decianus but Suetonius was a soldier and cared little for the administrative tasks which he was happy to leave with Cetus. He longed for action and was more interested in marching northwest with his substantial army to strike at the heart of anti-Roman resistance in Wales. To the hard-pressed Iceni, the new governor's hard military policies combined with the procurator's oppressiveness would be the final straw which would eventually spark their revolt. While Suetonius campaigned in faraway north Wales, Cetus and his corrupt officials had taken it upon themselves to squeeze even more taxes out of the client kingdoms. Cetus knew that Prasutagus was extremely wealthy, often being paid in cash and gold for his goods and the greedy procurator must have eyed these treasures with envy. The financial burdens imposed by the Romans were already strangling the kingdom as there were taxes on land, property, people, agricultural products, border tolls and even a tax for the privilege of having occupying forces in their lands. On top of these taxes, corrupt officials were creaming off substantial profits for themselves. The day of reckoning was further hastened by the death of the Icenian king Prasutagus in AD 59. The practical king bequeathed half his kingdom to Nero in a vain hope that this would satisfy the emperor. However, his actions were futile and the ruthless Cetus acted insensitively by immediately marching into the Iceni kingdom and seizing Prasutagus's entire estate along with other Icenian nobles' properties and capturing many slaves as he did so. Boudicca, still grieving for her husband, tried in vain to halt the Roman spree only to be dragged outside the royal palace and flogged before her people while her two daughters were brutally raped by Cetus's legionaries. News of these atrocities spread like wildfire throughout the other Celtic tribes and Cetus's ill-considered actions merely had a unifying effect upon them, focusing their anger against the Romans. Now, inter-tribe disputes were forgotten and all knew that it was Boudicca, queen of the Iceni, who must lead them in their desperate final struggle against the Roman foe. A conference of tribes was called and chiefs from far and wide witnessed the charismatic Boudicca, surrounded by chanting druids, urging them into action. Her sheer force of personality persuaded them to unite, for they knew that only their combined armies could ever hope to defeat the Romans. Amongst the tribes she persuaded to join her in her crusade were probably the Coritani, a number of disillusioned Catuvelloni, the Durotrigues, the Dobuni, and the Trinovantes. The Trinovantes, in particular, had grievances that had been allowed to fester over the years. Not only had their old capital been taken over and rebuilt by arrogant retired soldiers, but their lands had been seized and handed over to these veterans to farm. Their men had been forced into slave labor and their money had been used to build the hated temple of the divine Claudius. In normal circumstances, it would have been impossible to gather such large numbers together in any client kingdom without attracting suspicion, for there were always spies in every tribe willing to inform on their countrymen, supplying intelligence to the Romans for the reward of a few sesterces. Fortunately for the Iceni, most of the local soldiers at this time were away fighting with Suetonius in Wales. It was only when the first attacks were made that the Romans had any idea that the Iceni were in open revolt. Soon, Boudicca's huge army of over 100,000 began to move along quiet tracks and through dark forests. An enormous fighting force of warriors, civilians, charioteers, horses, carts brimming with equipment and supplies converging with one purpose on the southern Iceni territories. Each warrior was now in his full battle dress, many of them carrying spears, swords and huge decorated shields which protected much of their bodies. Some were in tunics, while others wore chain mail and high elaborate helmets. At the front of every tribe were their beautifully appareled leaders, each marching in front of his men. The imposing figure of Boudicca flanked by her followers. Her harsh voice urged them on, declaring The first target of the Britain's fury was Camulodunum. Not only was this home to the thousands of Romanized Britons, but also many retired legionaries, the very same veterans who had so brutally raped Boudicca's daughters. The Roman authorities held the local tribes in such contempt that they had not even bothered to construct defenses around the town. And so sheer naked panic broke out as news of the approaching army reached them. Caters could only muster 200 badly armed auxiliaries to send to the town's assistance. Unprepared, Camulodunum lay at the mercy of Boudicca's approaching army. The fate of the town was sealed, and the avenging hordes stormed through the streets, massacring and butchering all before them. The killing was indiscriminate. Whether Roman or Britain, male or female, young or old, all suffered the same terrible fate. Those who escaped instant death were dragged away and suffered even more appalling ritualistic abuse, and were sacrificially offered to the gods. The settlement was razed to the ground. But in a bitter twist of irony, a small group of Roman veterans held out in the Temple of Claudius for two days before they too fell into the hands of the Celts. Boudicca and her army had achieved their first objective, and now had time to consider their next move. While the blood of his countrymen was drenching the ground at Camulodunum, Suetonius's long campaign against the Druids in Anglesey was at last bringing success. However, whilst he was celebrating his victory, a bedraggled messenger brought news of the Celtic uprising. The experienced Suetonius realized then that many of his fellow Romans were probably already dead. This was no minor revolt, but a massive challenge to Roman authority that would require an equally vigorous response to put down. While Suetonius prepared to move against Boudicca, the queen was moving swiftly on towards other important Roman settlements, such as Londinium or to Verulamium. Suetonius immediately set off with his cavalry auxiliary force, in the desperate hope that he would arrive to defend these settlements before her, and to warn them of the approaching threat. Before leaving, he ordered the main bulk of his army, including the 14th and 20th legions, to follow him, taking the wattling street route south, where he would meet them with further orders. Boudicca realized that a major threat would come from the 9th Roman legion, based probably near Peterborough, from where she knew they would hurry south to the aid of their comrades, and she therefore dispatched a force to intercept them. As Cyrialis, the legate of the 9th legion, marched south with a vexillation of his men, he was ambushed by the Iceni, and his forces were almost annihilated. Only the 9th legion cavalry were able to effect an escape, and they hurriedly retreated to secure their headquarters. It was another grave setback for the Romans. News of the 9th legion's comprehensive defeat reached Cetus, who, in a display of typical cowardice, hurriedly packed his bags and set sail for Gaul to vanish completely from history. The weary Suetonius eventually arrived in Londinium with his cavalry, and quickly learned the size of Boudicca's force. He decided immediately that the town was indefensible, and made hasty plans to evacuate the population. He then withdrew to meet up with the main bulk of his army, and make a final stand against the Iceni rebels. The essential difference, I think, between Suetonius and Boudicca is that Suetonius was a trained and experienced professional soldier, whereas I believe that Boudicca was not. Therefore, he was very much accustomed to leading soldiers in battle, to directing them, and also he could expect his soldiers to do what they were told. Whereas Boudicca, in my opinion, was largely a religious and political leader, and I think that no matter how many military skills she may herself have had, she probably would have had great difficulty getting her troops to actually do as they were told most of the time. The armies were very different in their character. Typically, a British or a Celtic army would be a great crowd of warriors who were competing amongst themselves for prestige, glory, and honour. This meant that Celtic armies, although they could be incredibly brave and were often quite prepared to die to the last man, were also not very cohesive, and on occasions in many battles that we have accounts of, panic could rapidly ensue because the soldiers really didn't trust each other, they were competing. The Roman army was very different. The Roman army was trained to fight in teams. It was used to obeying battlefield orders, even where perhaps these might seem to place soldiers at risk, they had a very iron discipline. I think the key differences between the two armies were especially their degree of training, their response to orders, and also the extent of their weaponry. The Roman soldiers did not have better weapons than the Celts. Many individual Celtic weapons were at least as well made as anything the Romans had, but it's simply the fact that each Roman legionary was equipped like a Celtic chieftain. Most of the Celtic army consisted of unarmoured spearmen, and therefore they were physically much more vulnerable as well as less disciplined. Suetonius had been correct in his assessment of the situation in Londinium, and Boudica's army plundered its way through, burning all that stood in its path. They were not interested in the taking of prisoners. All who were unable to flee were massacred in a frenzy of barbaric savagery. Shortly after the destruction of Londinium, Verulamium met the same bloody fate. It is recorded that up to 70,000 people met their deaths during the Iceni orgy of looting and terror. Now, only the army of Suetonius stood between Boudica and a Britain free of Roman rule. Suetonius joined with the remainder of his army somewhere near to the junction of the Fosse Way and Watling Street, where he prepared to meet the Boudican army. Under his command was the 14th Legion, a detachment of the 20th Legion, and a number of auxiliary cohorts and cavalry units. With scarcely 10,000 men at his disposal, Suetonius knew that only superior Roman battle skills and training would win the day, for his men were heavily outnumbered by almost ten to one. Suetonius had chosen his battle position with great care. A narrow defile with thick woods behind, giving the Britons a restricted frontage to make their attack. He stationed his legionaries in the center of the line, six men deep, while the auxiliary cohorts were placed on the flanks with the cavalry on the wings. Suetonius addressed his men as they Don't pay any attention to the noises of these savages. They are unwarlike and ill-armed. There are more women than soldiers in their ranks. When they see the weapons and valor of the troops who have beaten them so often, they will crack. Keep together. Throw your javelins when I tell you. Then strike with your swords and hit them with the bosses of your shields. Mow them down. In an army of many legions, you win battle honor. What glory will be yours? A small band which fights for the honor of the whole army. Do not pause for booty. Win the battle, and you win it all. Queen Boudica, sensing the final victory was close at hand, rode triumphantly in her chariot before her troops, and eagerly declared, We British are used to women commanders in war. I am descended from mighty men, but now I am not fighting for our kingdom and wealth. Now I am fighting as an ordinary person for my lost freedom, my bruised body, and my outraged daughters. Nowadays, Roman rapacity does not even spare our bodies. Old people are killed. Virgins raped. The Roman legion which dared to fight is annihilated. The others cower in their camps, or watch for the chance to escape. They will never face the din and roar of all our thousands, much less the shock of our onslaught. Consider how many of you are fighting, and why. Then we will win this battle. The Celts were now almost impossible to restrain as they clashed their swords against their shields in time-honored fashion. Some of the painted warriors, unable to hear Boudica's heralds with their horns, began to race forward towards the enemy, screaming their ancient battle cries. Unfortunately for them, their fervor had overcome them. With no strategy or battle plan, they were playing right into the hands of the waiting Suetonius. In a display of iron discipline, the Romans stood their ground before the advancing Celts, not moving until the order was given to hurl their javelins. The first volley of these deadly weapons took a terrible toll, and threw the bewildered Celts into disarray. The Roman legions then advanced in a deadly wedge. The overwhelming Celtic superiority in numbers, once their one major advantage over the Romans, now began to hinder their movements, and they were funneled down the defile, a packed, disorganized mass, heavily constricted and unable to move. They were now engaged in bitter hand-to-hand fighting, and were quickly tiring. The advancing Romans took the initiative, replacing their front-row troops with fresh ones from the rear, who eagerly lunged forward, thrusting their gladius into the Celtic warriors. Finally, as the beaten Celts tried desperately to make their retreat, they saw their path to safety blocked by hundreds of their own baggage carts, which were strewn before them. The Roman army, now sure of victory, systematically and ruthlessly cut them down. Even helpless women and children were cruelly slain, and it is recorded that almost 80,000 Britons were slaughtered in the nightmare of killing, which ended the battle. For Boudicca, helplessly watching the appalling butchery, all hope of victory and a Britain free from Roman rule was now gone. Only capture and painful death awaited her. In despair, the warrior queen of the Iceni ended her own life by taking poison, thereby cheating the Romans of the greatest prize of all. The failed rebellion cost the surviving Celts dear, for the Roman reprisals were swift and harsh. The Celtic people lost more than a tenth of their entire population during the uprising, but many more, pitifully wounded, perished in the long, hard ensuing winter and famine. Those members of tribes who were not killed on the battlefield were hunted down and butchered with appalling severity. With the death of Queen Boudicca, a major threat to the continued Roman occupation had been removed, and Rome was to maintain a presence here for a further 350 years. Well, the immediate effect of the Boudiccan rebellion was to stop the Roman advance in Britain in its tracks for about 20 years. The Romans did not really begin the advance northwards again until virtually into the 80s AD. I think the main longer term event may well have been that it prevented the Romans finally conquering the whole of the British Isles. They eventually could only get as far as central and northern Scotland and were not able to completely quell the highlands, because by the time they got up there, battles and wars on other fronts started to mean, with the withdrawal of troops from Britain, they never had enough soldiers thereafter to complete the conquest of Britain. So it may well be that Boudicca's rebellion did help the survival of Celtic culture in the British Isles. Queen Boudicca of the Iceni failed in her glorious quest, but her name and deeds have refused to die. Kept alive by rich British folklore throughout the centuries, she has inspired artists and poets such as Milton. When the British warrior queen, bleeding from the Roman rods, sought, with an indignant mean, counsel of her country's gods, saged beneath a spreading oak, sat the druid, hoary chief. Every burning word he spoke, full of rage and full of grief. Rome shall perish! Write that word in the blood that she has spilt. Perish! Hopeless and abhorred, deep in ruin as in guilt. Regent Caesar never knew thy posterity shall sway. Where his eagles never flew, none invisible as thee. Such the bard's prophetic words, pregnant with celestial fire, bending as he swept the cords of his sweet but awful lyre. She, with all a monarch's pride, felt them in her bosom glow. Rushed to battle, fought and died. Dying hurled them at the foe. Ruffians, pitiless and proud, heaven awards the vengeance due. Empire on us bestowed. Shame and ruin wait for you. Nearly 2,000 years on from her death, history will not let slip the memory of a truly remarkable woman, Boudicca, queen of the Aesir.