ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS : Hannibal and Romes Western Empire

The Mediterranean Sea, 3rd century BC. Two huge empires in conflict. The Romans, with their lush and verdant home base in Italy, wanting to expand south to Africa to further their holdings, and in the process, gain knowledge in philosophy, literature, mathematics, and art. And the Carthaginians from North Africa, led by their great strategist and inspirational general, Hannibal. Hannibal's goal was to conquer Rome, his aggressor from the north, and he would let nothing stand in his way, not even the dangerous and foreboding Alps. But was he smart enough to overcome what would soon be the most powerful nation on earth? Archeology has revealed a wealth of secrets of both the Romans and the Carthaginians. Come with us now, as we trace the tracks of Hannibal and the war between two powerful civilizations. Carthage and Rome, initially equal in power, were destined for conflict. The Carthaginians, based in North Africa, dominated the Mediterranean on the south, with colonies across Africa and into Spain. Rome was beginning its ascent at the same time, engulfing most of Italy, and beginning to expand its power to the west. Carthage was known for its naval power, but the existence of the large and magnificent port of Carthage, described in detail by the Greek historian Appian, remained shrouded in mystery for centuries. It was only in 1974 that archeologists were able to conclude that the port was near modern day Tunis. This is what the tremendous harbor of Carthage looked like at that time. Ships would return from the sea into two pier areas, one for commercial ships and one for military. Carthage's modern, fearsome warships gave them uncontested dominion on the seas. Rome, on the other hand, was powerful on land. Their war strategists continually innovated and developed siege and war machines that their enemies had never encountered. It would have been easier for Carthage to attack Rome by sea, but instead, Hannibal, Carthage's great general, thought he would surprise Rome. He planned a bold overland expedition to attack Rome. He would take with him 90,000 infantry, 12,000 horsemen, and 40 elephants. His first move was to attack an ally of Rome, a city called Seguntum in Spain. Roman soldiers were already in the city as observers when Hannibal arrived. When the citizens heard that Hannibal was on his way, they called an emergency session to discuss war. These assemblies were held in open spaces or in theaters such as this one from the imperial age. Seguntum asked for help from Rome, but Rome was undecided, not sure whether it was wise to get involved in a war with Hannibal. That indecision is still famous today, thanks to the proverb, while they debate in Rome, Seguntum falls. The city held out for eight months against Hannibal's siege, but it was finally overrun and destroyed in 218 BC. The Carthaginians took the surviving citizens of the city and sold them as slaves, a habit the Romans practiced as well. But the Roman soldiers who were there, they took along as hostages. When archeologists started excavating in the Carthaginian region, from Northern Africa to Spain and Sardinia, they found a great quantity of objects. Some decorative, such as these colorful glass pieces and jewelry like this, and others whose meaning was unclear. It took archeologists years of work and hundreds of comparisons to objects of various sites to figure out that they were almost all amulets or good luck charms. To ward off evil, there were the smirking masks. While to protect against snakebite or scorpion stings, big dangers in Northern Africa, there was the Path Pateko. The hands of these statuettes try to indicate to the gods the position of the pain. Carthaginian art was thus strongly tied to magic, as well as being in great demand throughout the Mediterranean. Statues, busts, and friezes tell the tale of heroic or mythological journeys. In the Roman cities, great quantities of art objects adorned the houses and were found everywhere on the streets. Some were copies of Greek masterpieces, but most portrayed Roman subjects. What were they for? Were they purely for aesthetics or were they commemorating some event? Actually, the Romans loved art and used it widely in their rich and luxurious homes. But along the roads and in public spaces, the intention was not aesthetic, but political. Researchers discovered that the various sculptures and depictions were used to spread political and civil agendas or to magnify Roman conquests. They were also used as propaganda for the family or political party that financed the works. The Romans were the first to understand the power of images to influence public opinion. As the Romans and Carthaginians met on the battlefield and interacted with each other, the art and culture of the different civilizations became intriguing to both, although enemies, the two empires thirsted for knowledge of the other. After sweeping through Spain, the powerful Carthaginian army advanced into France to the banks of a deep and wide river, the Rhone. The elephants, the Sherman tanks of Hannibal's army, who were able to rout any enemy that dared to get in their way, refused to get their toes wet in spite of their usual obedience to their masters. How then could they get these animals across the river? The writer Polybius revealed Hannibal's simple but ingenious solution. Hannibal built a floating pier of rafts anchored at one end to large boats and at the other to strong trees. He then had the rafts covered with soil to fool the animals. Two females calmly walked out onto the pier and all the males followed. When all the elephants were afloat, Hannibal had the moorings cut so the rafts started moving toward the other side. The elephants were filled with fear as they saw the bank receding, but soon quieted down and made it across. Hannibal was on his way to Rome, but one major obstacle stood in his way, the Alps. Getting through the Alps was an enterprise no one had ever attempted. Along the way, amidst blistering snowstorms and dangerous precipices that dropped thousands of feet, Hannibal lost half of his army and half of his animals, but he did it. Arriving on the other side, he took the Romans completely by surprise. The Carthaginian army scored victories on the Ticino and Trebia rivers, at Lake Trasimeno, and lastly, at Cannae. Many Italian cities betrayed Rome to ally themselves with Hannibal, including Capua. The unbroken string of battles won by the Carthaginians brought the army all the way to the south of Rome, and here, knowing he was master of the house, Hannibal indulged in a nice, long rest. He must have enjoyed the lush countryside and the natural beauty that the south of Italy has to offer, and he indulged in learning about Roman customs and the Roman people. The Romans, as well, were learning about their neighbors from the south, their lifestyle, their habits, and customs. The cross-pollinization of cultures left archaeologists trying to explain many of their discoveries. What were these molds for? What did they cook in these pots? And what did the Carthaginian wine, referred to in several historical accounts, actually taste like? Studies and comparisons among various references and relics helped us discover that the Carthaginians were master confectioners, or makers of sweets, and that these molds were used to decorate their candies. Fine. Dogs, however, numerous among the Romans and trained to be man's friend, were not kept as pets by the Carthaginians. Instead, they ate them. Can you imagine sitting down at the Carthaginian table and inquiring about the meat you were being served? Maybe after you had a few glasses of the very strong-flavored Carthaginian wine, however, you wouldn't care. Rome, also, was a land of avid wine drinkers. Presses like the one we see reconstructed here allowed for abundant production, but Punic, or Carthaginian, wines were also imported to Rome. Passum was the Roman term for the special Carthaginian wine, wine made from dried grapes. The passito, that is still among Italy's most famous wines, was introduced to the region by the Carthaginians. The Bardo Museum in Tunis has the world's largest collection of Carthaginian objects. Necklaces, pins, brooches, rings, and buckles to beautify the Punic women. Mirrors, variously shaped ointment jars, and combs were everyday objects for enhancing the feminine allure of both Carthaginian and Roman women. After a long rest, it was time for Hannibal to pick up his weapons again. Rome, feeling safe within its walls, waited. Hannibal wanted to show the Romans that he could reach their gates without difficulty, and he did. He set up camp at the doors to the Eternal City, waiting for some sign from destiny. If Hannibal had entered Rome, he would have seen the people offering sacrifices before the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the Capitoline Hill. This is how it probably looked in all its ancient splendor. The rectangular temple was 260 feet long and 180 feet wide. It was the largest temple of all those built in the Italic Etruscan period. It was built by the Tarquins, kings of Etruscan origins, who governed Rome at the end of the monarchic period. The temple dates back to the 6th century BC and was a colossal work for that time. It was a symbol of Roman power for centuries and served as a model even in the imperial epic throughout the provinces taken over by Rome. Its grandeur is exemplified by the columns nearly 65 feet tall laid out in six lines and by the decorations on the facade that were covered with terracotta medallions painted in a variety of colors. On the Capitoline Hill, the Romans held their most important ceremonies such as the Commedia Tributa, meetings during which the plebeians or people of Rome elected their representatives. In addition, victorious generals returning from battle would celebrate with a solemn sacrifice in front of the temple. And lastly, it was here that every year on the 1st of January, the consuls, the supreme magistrates of the Roman Republic, were appointed. They ran the state and had full powers and control over the army but held office for only 12 months, almost like king for a year. These two temples, on the other hand, not far from each other, were devoted to the business or commercial aspects of Rome at that time. Archaeologists came to this conclusion after analyzing a series of clues. The circular temple contained the base of a statue bearing an inscription. They were able to read the names of the sculptor and that of a wealthy merchant, along with the god to whom the sculpture was dedicated, Hercules Olivarius, protector of the oil merchant's guild. The other is dedicated to Portunus, an older god of the harbor. The river port of Rome on the Tiber must have been nearby. Outside the city, Hannibal stared at walls protecting the city that looked more difficult to overcome than the Alps. These walls date to the fourth century BC and are called the Servian Walls. They were built using the top edge technique whereby one stone is set on its side and the next one on its edge. This system allowed them to construct a wall over 30 feet high and 13 feet thick. Stretching almost seven miles, the walls enclosed an area of over 1,000 acres. The Romans felt they needed them that strong after a bad experience with the Gauls who had made it into the city. These walls gave the Romans a sense of security and they didn't seem terribly concerned about Hannibal's presence. In writings from those days about the siege, it states that the land on which Hannibal had set up camp just outside of the city was sold while he was there and its value didn't even decrease, meaning that someone expected it to be vacated soon. The massive walls and the strength of the Roman army behind them ended up discouraging Hannibal who had no sophisticated war machines with which to attack the city. The Carthaginian leader also realized that he had made a tactical error by leaving behind several cities that were still faithful to Rome and ready to intervene in her defense. Hannibal withdrew and as a gesture of goodwill that was unexplainable for someone whom many portrayed as a barbarian, set free his prisoners. The Roman soldiers who were his captives for seven full years entered a festive Rome as free men. Hannibal remained in Italy for quite some time until Carthage itself was threatened by a Roman general, Africanus Scipio. Hannibal left to defend Carthage and at Zama near Carthage, lacking cavalry, he was defeated decisively by Scipio. Hannibal fled to the court of King Antiochus III of Syria and Rome imposed extremely harsh peace conditions on the Carthaginians. The fame of the great leader and the hope of finding his traces drove archeologists to dig at the hill of Bursa. Historians and legend maintained that a city was founded there and it was there that the only remaining Punic settlement was discovered. Archeologists call this place Hannibal's Quarters and it would have looked like this. Since Rome had now routed another enemy, it was business as usual in the city and that meant the daily offering of sacrifices to the gods. Religious functions were held in front of temples containing statues portraying the gods. This huge temple was divided into three separate areas called cellas, each one devoted to a particular divinity. The most important and grandiose was dedicated to the king of the Roman Olympus, Jupiter. Because of his supreme position, his cella was in the middle and his portal was larger than the others. The two cellas on either side had lower and narrower portals indicating to worshipers that they housed lesser gods. The cella on the left was dedicated to Jupiter's wife known to the Romans as Juno. She protected women, marriage and fertility thus guaranteeing the propagation of the Roman race. The other cella on Jupiter's left is dedicated to Minerva, goddess of science and literature, protector and custodian of the city of Rome. The three gods were the most widely worshiped in the Roman Olympus and thanks to the practical spirit that characterized the Romans even when it came to religion, they were all gathered in one place. Thousands of pounds of precious incense were offered throughout the Roman Empire to these three gods, the Capitoline Triad. On the other side of the Mediterranean in Carthage, the Punic religion encompassed more intimate and mysterious aspects. The Carthaginian gods, more than being human-like figures, represented mysterious forces that were invigorated when nourished by the sacrifice of living blood. In 1921, during a clandestine dig, a tomb raider found this stone slab or stelae. It portrays a priest with a child in his arms. It would soon be famous throughout the world triggering a debate that has continued to this day. Archaeologists began excavating where the stelae had been found and found other stelae, urns, ashes, and bones of children. They had uncovered the Tophet of Carthage, the world's largest children's cemetery. But was it a cemetery or a place of sacrifice? The archaeologists revealed a shocking practice. The children were put into a fire and cremated in a ceremony known as Molk. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian, tells us that the Carthaginians offered their own live children to the gods. The last archaeologist to excavate the Tophet was the American Lawrence Stager. Using the context in which the urns were found and various historical sources, including the Bible, he reached the same conclusion that the sacrifices really occurred. But the preeminent scholar of the Punic world, Sabatino Moscati, is of a different opinion. He believes the Tophet is merely a cemetery for children. His thinking is based on the absence of children's graves and other cemeteries in the ancient cities. Carthage itself was burned to the ground during the Third Punic War in 146 BC, but the Romans eventually rebuilt the city, culturally harmonizing it with their own tastes. It became the number two city in the Roman Empire. On the Bursa Hill, an immense basilica was built whose thick colonnade is still standing. Wealthy Romans new to Africa built magnificent villas on the slopes leading down to the sea. This villa, called the Aviary for the bird motif mosaic that paves its courtyard, is one of the most sumptuous. The reception hall is paved in marble and it includes a garden theater complete with stage and stalls. The Romans brought their architecture to Carthage along with their games, their art, and their elegant lifestyle that today still shines with a rare beauty. The Carthaginian civilization, 1,000 years older than Rome, more or less disappeared into the history books, though a few traces can still be found throughout the Mediterranean basin. It was the Romans, however, who emerged victorious and passed their culture on to posterity. A culture, however, that contains a wealth of indelible contributions from the Carthaginians. Little did Hannibal know that his legacy was to help in this cross-cultural exchange. Spain, France, the third century AD, the expansion of Latin culture and Roman cities. Today, when one speaks of Latin peoples or languages, the reference is usually to Italy or Spain, perhaps to South America, or to the many people of Latin origin living in the United States. But what were the origins of Latin culture and how did ancient Roman civilization come to influence half of Europe? The reason was that in the wake of Rome's armies came the builders, the artists, the poets, the peacemakers. From the Colosseum and its courageous gladiators, many of whom became famous throughout the empire, to the amphitheaters, the temples, the art, and grand public works, the Romans' lifestyle and civilization was so admired and successful that the culture, Latin culture, was easily adopted and treasured. Rome's imprint was so strong it has lived on for thousands of years. The Western Roman Empire in the third century AD extended as far north as modern-day Great Britain. However, the richest and most politically important lands lay to the west and south, from Provence to Portugal, comprising such present-day cities as Orange, Arles, Nîmes, Tarragona, and Mérida. The Spanish and French provinces were connected to Rome via excellent roads, mountain passes through the Alps, and infrastructure for economic development such as aqueducts. From Provence in southern France and also from Spain, agricultural products like olive oil and preserved foods such as garum, a fish sauce widely used as a condiment, arrived in Rome. These countries, in turn, obtained gold and money from the Romans. Spain and France were also very active in metal mining. In the first century BC, the philosopher Posidonius d'Apamea wrote, When a forest burns in Spain, you see gold and silver bubbling from the ground. After using force to conquer territories, the Romans built cities modeled after Rome, and their allure was in large part due to impressive Roman feats of architecture and engineering. People such as the Gauls and the Iberians, at first intimidated and in awe of the Romans' ingenious war machines, slowly became fascinated with what the Romans were capable of building. For decades, archaeologists studied Roman engineering to find out the secrets, unknown to most other nations at that time, by which the Romans were able to erect grandiose works with such stability, precision, practicality, and visual splendor, such as this incredible aqueduct. This is the Pont du Gard, one of the boldest structures of all Roman antiquity, built in the first century AD. The span over the river Gard, near Nîmes in Provence, is a full 157 feet high, over 900 feet long, and no mortar binds its stone arches. But what is even more amazing is the mystery of how ancient engineers could build an aqueduct that brought water to Nîmes from over 30 miles away, with a drop of only 56 feet from its source. The secret lies in this leveling instrument called corrobite. It is a bench 20 feet long with plumb lines hung from it. When the plumb line is aligned with the guide mark, the top of the bench, corresponding to the water channel, is perfectly level. This means that the work has not been performed correctly. Hence, water will not flow, and the slope has to be increased. Conversely, if the plumb line is too far off the guide mark, it means there is too much slope, and adjustments are again necessary. To ensure that the aqueduct maintained its downhill slope all the way to its destination, the corrobite was used to maintain the minimum slope as the work was done. The work progressed. When the bench leans forward and the plumb line is just a few degrees off the guide mark, the surface has the right slope to allow the water to flow. More than five million gallons of water flowed over the Pont du Gard every day to fill a reservoir in Nîmes known as the Castellum Divisorium, supplying the needs of both the Gallic and the Roman inhabitants. But why did they need so much water? To find out, let's examine traces of the past still surviving in the modern city of Nîmes. Historical records and relics, such as this coin found in Nîmes, tell us that the city was given as a gift in 31 BC to the veterans of Augustus' army as a reward for their victorious participation in the Egyptian campaign. This ancient inscription reveals that the walls of Nîmes known as Nîmouses in Roman times, were erected in 15 BC and extended from the gate for four miles to encircle the city. With a thickness of over seven feet, the city walls enclosed an area of 540 acres, setting the stage for the birth of one of the largest provincial capitals in all of Roman Gaul. Archaeologists believe that only after the walls were erected did the city decide it needed water in order to survive and grow. And hence, about 40 years later, they built the aqueduct. The walls were punctuated with towers. 43 are known, but there must have been more than 80. One of these, the Tour Magna, built in Augustus' time, is 110 feet high and provides evidence that in that area, there was an agustaeum, a sanctuary where the Emperor Augustus was worshipped as a divinity. All around then, as well as now, there were gardens, parks, fountains, and waterworks. The Roman colonizers encountered the indigenous population of the Gauls and intermingled. In just a few centuries, a proud new people and an advanced civilization had originated, a community that needed 5 million gallons of water a day. The Romans brought their spiritual beliefs into Gallic life as well. This temple was built in the year 4 AD and given the name Maison Carrée in a subsequent era. It is one of the most beautiful monuments in France. Colbert, one of Louis XIV's ministers, even wanted to have it transported to Versailles. But why does the building have the same capitals as the Temple of Mars Ultor in Augustus' Forum in Rome? To achieve the maximum architectural splendor for their city, the Gaul Romans of Nîmes used a strategy which was not completely original, but certainly effective. Copy the best of what had already been built. This magnificent amphitheater, Les Arènes, now used for bullfights, is one of many examples. The structure comprises two orders of archways punctuated by Doric capitals on both levels. Les Arènes seats 24,000 spectators in an oval 330 feet across and 430 feet long. In Arles, just a few miles from Nîmes, there is another almost identical amphitheater. It has two orders of arches punctuated by Doric capitals on the first level and Corinthian, the only difference, on the second. The lengths of the axes are virtually identical, as is the seating capacity, 26,000 spectators. The towers, which today distinguish the Arles Arena from its cousin in Nîmes, are of a later period. They were added in the Middle Ages when the amphitheater was used as a fort. For a gladiator in ancient times, entering the amphitheater and performing in front of 20,000 spectators, it must have been a tremendous rush, a chance to become both hero and champion. In the city of Orange, depictions on this monumental arch puzzled archaeologists for ages. There were naked prisoners in chains, certainly Gauls, and images of a triumphant Rome. But why would the Romans have chosen to show the Gauls in such a suppressive state if they were trying to win them over to their way of life and make them one with their civilization? Who would have ordered such freezes? The first thing archaeologists did to resolve the mystery was to try to determine the historic occasion for the construction of this triumphal arch. For a long time, scholars leaned towards Caesar and his victories reported in the De Bello Gallico. Then, after a careful observation of the pattern of holes in the architrave, they succeeded in reconstructing the original inscription. It was Tiberius, an emperor who lived much later than Caesar. Tiberius, though knowing all too well that the Romans and the Gauls were becoming a single people, wanted to send a warning to the indigenous population, reminding them of Rome's power and greatness. Protruding stones with a hole in the middle at the beautiful Roman theater in Orange were at first also a mystery for archaeologists. But it is from painstaking study on details like this that archaeologists discover the many secrets of antiquity. In this case, the research shed light on the comforts of Roman theaters. The perforated slabs are called modillions, and they supported wooden posts holding up a valerian. Just think, the best Roman theaters were equipped with a tent, roofing that protected the spectators from the sun and rain. In cities that did not have an amphitheater, the theaters were sometimes used for gladiatorial combat, adding real-life drama to what was normally just intellectual entertainment. Fresh from victories over the Gauls in Provence, the Romans pushed westward across the Pyrenees into Spain, all the way to Cadiz at the tip, securing what would become one of the most important areas of the empire. Modern-day Spain was known to the Romans as Hispania after they defeated Carthage in 197 BC. It became an extremely rich land by the 3rd century AD, perhaps even richer than Rome. Tarragona was the capital of Rome's most important Spanish province, Tarraconensis. A charming Catalan city has been built upon the ruins of its magnificent Roman ancestor. Fortunately, many Roman elements have been preserved, such as the striking amphitheater at the seashore, the aqueduct, and other important archaeological finds. The work of archaeologists continues still. Most of their finds are unearthed, digging in people's cellars or underneath or inside the houses and buildings of the modern city. Some of the buildings of the old city have strange vaulted ceilings, ancient supporting arches over 23 feet tall, separated by pilaster strips that lead into other vaults, all exactly the same. Studies have revealed that the vaults, all from Roman times, supported the stands of the ancient Circus of Tarragona, a magnificent hippodrome where chariot races took place. The main road into the city led to the Circus, which was on the lowest of three terraces that comprised the city's immense forum, over 180 acres. After years of research, archaeologists were able to establish both the layout of the Forum of Tarragona along with the Circus. Half of the Circus, as we see from this section, was dug into the Tarragona hillside. The other half was suspended on vaults. This area, now covered by subsequent constructions, is still supported at its base by the work of the Roman engineers. These arches represented the external facade of the Circus. It was where the spectators entered and were directed to their assigned seats. You might hear the sounds of the races already in progress as you entered. Chariot races were exciting contests of strength and stamina. Mentioned as far back as Homer's Iliad, almost a thousand years before Christ. The Forum stood above the Circus and included the city's most important temple, the Capitoline Triad. At one end of the oval, there was no public seating. This was where the starting gates were, where the chariots came bursting out after the starting signal, ready to fight to see who would be the first to finish seven laps. Crowds loved the events. The races were even more popular than gladiator battles, and a circus normally seated twice as many spectators as an amphitheater. To properly set up the two U-turns, each circus had these three strange cones, called metes, placed near the curves. This was where the most spectacular accidents took place, which the Romans called shipwrecks. The chariot literally overturned, ejecting its driver, or alriga. The desire of spectators to see mishaps has not changed much in 2,000 years. For even bolder and bloodier action, audiences in Tarragona would have gone to the amphitheater to see the gladiators. Archaeologists discovered that there were walls in the amphitheater that did not belong to the original structure, but were built later. Historical records spoke of a martyrdom that occurred in the arena, where a bishop and two deacons were burned at the stake. Excavations revealed that a Christian basilica had been built on the site of the burnings in the 6th century A.D. The Christians were persecuted because they refused to worship the emperors as gods. In Hispania, Roman culture found fertile soil and produced rich and flourishing cities, which in turn gave birth to illustrious philosophers such as Seneca, and also great emperors like Trajan and his successor Hadrian, under whom the Roman Empire witnessed its greatest expansion. We are in Italica, an impressive archaeological site in southern Spain. Thanks to its two great emperors, the city grew in splendor around the 2nd century A.D. The size of this majestic amphitheater alone suggests that it once served a much larger city than what now remains. The subsequent Arab invasions and occupation, lasting more than 600 years, favored nearby Seville and left the beautiful Italica in abandonment. Gladiators, former slaves, criminals, prisoners of war, or even volunteer freedmen would travel hundreds, sometimes thousands of miles to fight in these big arenas, many times to the death. These grandiose events were offered as entertainment in exchange for political support from the audiences. In Mérida, a signature inscribed on a statue tells us the name of its sculptor, Demetrius. Demetrius would have obviously been Greek and was probably a pilgrim or an itinerant worker without a fixed workshop. Works found here in excavations are kept in the Museum of Mérida, the capital of the Lusitanian province, encompassing parts of Spain and today's Portugal. Studying these works, along with writings of poets and philosophers, reveals that Roman culture came from the older eastern provinces of the empire and spread westwards. From the Greeks, the Egyptians, the Etruscans, the Phoenicians and the Persians, Rome absorbed the nectar of knowledge. As they conquered new lands, they enriched their culture, remodeling it, reinventing it, like the republican statute or Roman law. To Spain, France, and Italy, the Romans brought a culture that was the sum of more ancient cultures, which over the centuries evolved into the Latin culture. The name of the city of Mérida, for the Romans, Emerita Augusta, derives from the worthy Roman soldiers who defeated the proud local populations. The city's symbol, a 105-foot-high aqueduct with three arches called Los Milagros, is a wonderful example of the Romanization of the area. The city also has three impressive arenas, a theater, an amphitheater, and a circus, or hippodrome, for the chariot races. Sometimes three-day events were organized in Mérida, elimination tournaments with no holds barred. The first contests would have taken place in this amphitheater built by Augustus in the year 8 BC. The second round would have occurred in this circus, while the final encounter of the last two surviving gladiators would be held in this monumental, well-preserved 1st century BC theater, decorated by two orders of Corinthian columns. If a gladiator was victorious in all three arenas, he would have been cheered and hailed by the crowds and the royalty as a conquering hero, and given the most important and sought-after award, a wooden sword, the symbol of freedom. Having won his freedom, a gladiator would not have to return to perhaps his cold and barbarian homeland, but could spend his life in this inviting, warm city, at the western edge of the world as it was then known. A gladiator could live free in the great Roman Empire, an empire that had made him a slave, but allowed him to become a hero and a free man.