The residents of Samarkand were of Sogdian descent, and their craftsmanship was considered among the best in the world. However, because the King of Samarkand and his people did not believe in Buddhism and considered it heresy, Xuanzang and his entourage were not welcome. The local residents attacked two of Xuanzang’s disciples when they were seen praying at an abandoned temple in the city.
Fortunately, Xuanzang was brought before the King of Samarkand. He managed to convince the king to accept Buddhism after just one night of conversation. After that, Buddhism was welcomed in Samarkand.
After leaving Samarkand, Xuanzang passed through a small city of Kusana, present-day Shahrisabz in Uzbekistan, and reached the Iron Gate Pass after walking over 100 kilometres through the mountainous terrain. The pass connected South and Central Asia and was controlled by the Turkic people. Because Xuanzang was accompanied by the Khan’s military officers, he was able to pass without difficulties.
The next destination for Xuanzang was the Kingdom of Dami (Termez) where Buddhism flourished in the 7th century and where grand monasteries were located. The ruins of one such monastery, Kara-Tepe, can still be seen today. After battling the bitter cold, Xuanzang’s group encountered extreme heat in Termez, where the temperature could go above 40 degrees Celsius.
In the summer of 628 CE, Xuanzang and his entourage reached the Kingdom of Huo, in present-day Afghanistan. This kingdom was part of the Western Turkic Khaganate and was ruled by the Khan’s eldest son, Prince Tardu. The queen, who was the younger sister of the king of Gaochang, had passed away and the prince himself was very sick.
Prince Tardu requested Xuanzang to stay for several days so he could see him off to India when his condition improved. However, it turned out that the unfortunate situation was more complicated than it seemed. Upon his wife’s death, Prince Tardu had married a young woman who colluded with one of his sons to kill him. She poisoned Prince Tardu, and his adult son claimed the throne. The incident forced Xuanzang to delay his journey for about a month in order to attend the funeral rites of Prince Tardu.
After the unfortunate political intrigue in the Kingdom of Huo, Xuanzang continued his journey, again encountering snow-covered mountains where there were frequent snow storms. A hunter led the group through the difficult terrain, and they managed to arrive at the Buddhist Kingdom of Kapisi, which is near present-day Kabul. It is said that there was a large temple in the kingdom but no trace remains of it today. It took Xuanzang and his group six months to travel across the kingdom. He gave teachings and visited many sacred Buddhist places in Kapisi before continuing on the journey,
In the city of Jalalabad, located on the south bank of the Kabul River, Xuanzang paid homage to the famed Buddha bone relic. He also visited the Shadow Cave in the mountains near Jalalabad to see the image of the Buddha inside the cave. It is said that after he prayed 200 times, the image of Lord Buddha appeared and vanished quickly. Xuanzang prayed another 200 times, and the holy image appeared again, more distinct than before. Xuanzang was overcome with emotion upon seeing the Buddha’s holy image.
In the autumn of 628 CE, Xuanzang reached the Indus River. From here, the Khan’s soldiers returned to their country because the area was not under the control of the Western Turkic Khaganate.
An artist’s illustration of Xuanzang crossing the Indus River
India
Upon crossing the Indus River, Xuanzang reached the Kingdom of Gandhara where he visited many Buddhist holy sites. Although the region had been the centre of Buddhism in central Asia, the faith was in decline. Many temples had been burned and the monks had been exiled. The kingdom was deeply influenced by Greek culture as a result of Alexander the Great’s expedition.
Upon leaving the Kingdom of Gandhara, Xuanzang travelled southeast to Kashmir, where Buddhism was an established religion. He stayed in Kashmir for approximately two years, where there were around 5,000 monks and 100 temples. In addition to Buddhism, the people of ancient India believed in Jainism and Brahmanism. Xuanzang gathered many Buddhist scriptures from this area.
During Xuanzang’s time, Buddhist scriptures needed to be recited in front of an assembly of eminent monks to verify their authenticity before they could be disseminated. This was because the scriptures were originally passed down through oral transmission. When the assembly gathered, they examined the scriptures and discussed the meanings of their contents in order to create authoritative documents for later generations. Whenever the scriptures were deemed inaccurate, they were corrected in accordance with the opinion of the majority.
The gold coin of King Kanishka
In his book, the Great Tang Records of the Western Region, Xuanzang mentions King Kanishka of Kushana who ordered the Fourth Buddhist Council to be held in 100 CE. Xuanzang noted that there were approximately 300,000 scriptures in Kashmir. They were invaluable to Xuanzang and he spent one whole year studying them thoroughly.
In August 629 CE, Xuanzang left Kashmir for Nalanda University to further his Buddhist studies. On the way there, Xuanzang and his disciples passed through the Pradesh Forest where they encountered a group of robbers who tried to kill them. Fortunately, they found a hidden water tunnel that provided a passage for them to escape.
Following the harrowing experience, the group arrived at the Kingdom of Cinabhukti. The people in this kingdom were familiar with Chinese culture because a Chinese prince had lived in the area during the Han Dynasty. The travellers enjoyed great hospitality here and stayed in Cinabhukti for almost six months.
In the spring of 631 CE, Xuanzang arrived at the Ganges River. Hindus consider the Ganges a holy river and believe that its waters can purify sins. He recalled that the water was very clean. However, an unfortunate event occurred after he reached the holy river. The followers of a local goddess abducted Xuanzang. He was chosen to be killed as an offering to the goddess due to his pleasing appearance, an offering that they mistakenly thought would appease the deity. Believing that his end was near, Xuanzang prayed silently. It was during this time that another miracle occurred. A strong wind arose and created huge waves in the river. The followers of the goddess thought that they had angered her and decided to delay their sacrificial rituals. Thus Xuanzang’s life was saved.
In the summer of 631 CE, Xuanzang reached Kapilavastu, Buddha Shakyamuni’s hometown. This was where Prince Siddharta Gautama, known as Buddha Shakyamuni after his enlightenment, was born. After walking about 50 kilometres, Xuanzang arrived at the pagoda built by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty who ruled over almost all of the Indian subcontinent and became a devout Buddhist in later life.
Next, Xuanzang visited Kushinagar, the place where Buddha passed away. There was a pagoda there on which was carved the story of the Buddha’s path to Nirvana at the age of 80. Then, Xuanzang travelled to Sarnath, the place where Buddha Shakyamuni taught for the first time after he achieved Enlightenment.
In his biography, Xuanzang described Sarnath as a place filled with magnificent temples and with a great number of Sangha members. This was the case even though at the time of Xuanzang’s visit, Buddhism was in decline. After Sarnath, Xuanzang visited Vaishali (near present-day Patna). Here too, Xuanzang faced the sad reality that Buddhism was in decline. There were hundreds of temples but most of them had been abandoned and only a small number still functioned as centres of religious study and thought.
The statue of Buddha Shakyamuni in Sarnath
From Vaishali, Xuanzang proceeded to Bodhgaya, the place where Buddha Shakyamuni achieved Enlightenment. To commemorate that momentous event, the king at the time had erected two sculptures of the Buddha at the Mahabodhi Temple. It was said that if the sculptures were buried by earth, Buddhism would perish. Xuanzang saw that the sculptures were partially buried and he was greatly disturbed.
After all the courage and composure that he had shown in the face of the many challenges of his long journey, Xuanzang was overcome by emotion to see the decline of the Buddhist faith that he loved so much. After visiting several other important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India, Xuanzang headed to the main destination of his journey, Nalanda Monastery.
Nalanda Monastery was located in the Magadha Kingdom, in present-day Bihar State of India, and was a major Buddhist centre. It is said that between the 5th and the 6th centuries BCE, Buddha Shakyamuni had delivered lectures in the mango grove nearby. One of his disciples, Shariputra, attained Nirvana there. Xuanzang finally arrived at Nalanda in the autumn 631 CE, but the story of his courage and arduous journey had preceded him. When he arrived, the sangha gave the traveller a grand welcome.
Although Buddhism was in decline in India, Nalanda maintained its reputation as the foremost Buddhist institution of the time and had the support of kings and members of the royal family. Some people consider Nalanda the first university in ancient India and about 10,000 monks lived and studied there. They studied the Mahayana doctrines, worldly classics such as Indian classical logic, Sanskrit theory, medical science and mathematics. Every day, 100 lectures were held at the monastery and the disciples maintained strict awareness and discipline.
In his book, the Great Tang Records of the Western Region, Xuanzang mentioned that the King of India provided Nalanda with the tax revenue from over 100 cities and towns. In addition, over 200 families supplied the monastery with large quantities of rice and dairy products. Therefore, the residents of Nalanda were free to focus on their studies instead of worrying about subsistence, as the pursuit of knowledge was considered a higher pursuit than any other activity.
When Xuanzang arrived, the abbot of Nalanda was Silabhadra (529 – 645 CE) who was already over 100 years old. He was a member of a royal family and widely respected. Due to his old age and illness, Silabhadra was considering entering death meditation to pass into his next life. However, he had dreamt of the arrival of Xuanzang, and predicted that he would spread the doctrine of the Buddha to many people. When Xuanzang met with Silabhadra, the two seemed to share a special chemistry. A grand ceremony was held where Xuanzang was formally accepted as the abbot’s disciple. This was perhaps the happiest moment of Xuanzang’s life.
An artist’s illustration of Xuanzang and Silabhadra in the Xuanzang Memorial Hall in Nalanda
In his book, In the Footsteps of the Buddha, Rene Grousset wrote about the fateful meeting between Xuanzang and Silabhadra:
In Nalanda, Xuanzang was treated very well. Two servants were assigned to help him and he was also allowed the great honour of travelling by elephant. In Nalanda, only 10 out of 10,000 monks were allowed to travel by elephant. Prior to starting his formal instruction, Xuanzang visited the sacred Rajgir Hill, which was associated with the story of Ajatashatru who imprisoned his father King Bimbisara so he could take his throne. Bimbisara requested to be imprisoned near a hill where he could catch sight of the Buddha passing in the morning and evening.
In the spring of 632 CE, Silabhadra began instructing Xuanzang on the Stages of Yogic practice, which was considered the most important of the scriptures of Buddhism. The lecture lasted 15 months. After it was completed, Xuanzang repeated the study of the Stages of Yogic practice three times from beginning to end. He also received an introduction into the theories of logic and the languages of ancient India. Xuanzang felt at home with the rigorous learning environment in Nalanda. In total, he studied in Nalanda for five years.
After five years, Xuanzang decided to travel again to gain more knowledge. For the next three years, he travelled around India and recorded in detail what he saw and learnt in his biography. In the spring of 640 CE, Xuanzang returned to Nalanda Monastery and told Silabhadra that he wanted to return to China. However, Silabhadra advised him to delay his trip and instead participate in a series of scriptural debates with the monks of the Yoga School.
His performance in these debates would determine the reputation of his teacher. The loser of the debate would have to either withdraw from public discourse or switch to the other’s school of thought. At the debate, the students of both sides came around to Xuanzang’s point of view, and his opponents abandoned the debate. Due to Xuanzang’s deep knowledge and skills in debate, the Yogacara School saw a revival and his reputation as a learned Buddhist master grew.
However, the fame and reputation did not lessen his wish to return to China – he had achieved his main purpose, which was to clear up the discrepancies in Buddhist scripture and he had gained the knowledge to spread the correct Buddhist teachings in China.
But Xuanzang also had to participate in a series of unexpected scriptural debates before he returned. As he was victorious in debate after debate, stronger opponents came to challenge him. On one occasion, he was summoned by the King of Eastern India. Nalanda Monastery rejected the invitation on the grounds that Xuanzang was planning to return to China. The king was outraged, and threatened to destroy Nalanda if Xuanzang did not come. Then, Xuanzang received a similar invitation from the powerful King Harsha.
King Harsha had been enthroned at the age of 17. Within six years, his kingdom was known for its military strength. He was often compared to another great Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, who had been ruthless military leader who had then converted to Buddhism. By 612 CE, he had unified most of Northern India under his empire. Harsha was a powerful yet benevolent ruler, and tolerant of all religions. His support was critical for the survival of Buddhism because the king’s generosity meant that the monks in Nalanda Monastery could live comfortably.
In the winter of 640 CE, King Harsha and the King of Eastern India were at a standoff over Xuanzang. But due to King Harsha’s powerful influence, the King of Eastern India withdrew his invitation and threat. According to Xuanzang’s biography, King Harsha was eager to meet him and welcomed him at night with thousands of torches lit up along the Ganges River as a welcome.
During this meeting, King Harsha made the announcement that he would sponsor a nationwide religious debate in the capital of his empire, Kannauj. Xuanzang would play a major role in the debate while King Harsha facilitated the exchange of ideas. Wise men from various sects in India were invited to participate and offer their opinions on Xuanzang’s ideas.
The event was considered one of the greatest religious debates in the history of India. King Harsha, the King of Eastern India and 18 other kings attended the event along with 3,000 monks, 2,000 representatives of the Hindu religion, and over 1,000 monks from the Nalanda Monastery chosen for their knowledge and eloquence.
After the opening ceremony, Xuanzang commenced a lecture about his ideas. The debate involved a system of rewards and penalties. Xuanzang declared that if anyone could successfully refute his Buddhist concepts, he would kill himself as a penalty. King Harsha had Xuanzang’s ideas written out and displayed prominently so all potential opponents could study them.
On the day of the debate, and as always, Xuanzang spoke with eloquence. His efforts and rigorous study, knowledge, gift of languages and personal charisma paid off and his reputation as a genuine Buddhist master grew. Five days passed and nobody came forward to challenge him. However, the event was sabotaged. King Harsha’s respect for Xuanzang made followers of the other religions jealous. Because they could not challenge Xuanzang in debate, they tried to create chaos by not challenging him. 18 days passed without anyone challenging him and by the last day of the event, he had converted many people. He was praised as a great Buddhist master and earned even more respect from King Harsha. His achievement was unprecedented as never before had such a challenge remained unanswered.
King Harsha’s younger sister was interested in Hinayana Buddhism and because of her influence, the king himself had become interested in that branch of Buddhism. However, due to Xuanzang’s influence, the princess converted from the Hinayana way of thought to the Mahayana. Later that year, King Harsha sent envoys to the Tang Empire, and the Tang Empire also sent envoys to the Harsha Kingdom. It was the first time that China and India exchanged diplomatic envoys. This contact was to last for half a century. This relationship led to a great exchange of ideas at the time, including the Chinese learning the method of refining white sugar from India.
Xuanzang continued to collect manuscripts of Buddhist classics from around India that would come to have significant influence on Buddhism in China. Xuanzang finally left India for China in the late spring of 643 CE, although King Harsha and the monks of Nalanda Buddhist were reluctant to see him go. Four years after the great debate, King Harsha passed away. Upon the passing of this Buddhist monarch, chaos reigned in northern India and Buddhism fell into further decline.
China After Xuanzang’s Departure
Political Situation
In the 15 years Xuanzang had spent in India, the political situation had changed dramatically in and around his homeland. Some years after Xuanzang left the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Khan was assassinated. The unfortunate event led to the decline of the Western Turkic Khaganate. One year after his departure, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate fell, and was no longer a threat to China’s north-western borders. Emperor Taizong was able to consolidate his power and extended his influence to the kingdoms of the Taklamakan Desert.
Return Journey to China
Xuanzang had departed Chang’an alone as a fugitive, but his return journey to China could not be more different. He was accompanied by many followers and carried a large number of Buddhist books and scriptures. A return by sea would have been less arduous but Xuanzang chose to return over land to keep the promise that he made at the beginning of the journey – a vow to the King of Gaochang that, on his way back to China, he would stop at Gaochang and teach for three years.
Xuanzang’s pilgrimage map
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