Fehden, Feste und Folter: Deutschland zwischen Staufern und Habsburgern

What is Germany in the late Middle Ages? It is not easy to answer this question because Germany as we know it today did not exist back then, it was just a part of a larger whole of the Holy Roman Empire that stretched from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, but it was this empire not a unified state but a colorful patchwork of many principalities, cities, dioceses and monasteries, all of which pursued their own interests. The north of the empire, where the people spoke primarily German, has been referred to since the 11th century as the Regnum Teutonic German Kingdom. This name came from Italy, where they met The popes who resided in Rome wanted to differentiate themselves from the barbarians in the north. They often called the Roman king, who also ruled over the Regnum Teutonic Empire, the king of the Germans. They did this in order to weaken and humiliate him, especially during the investiture dispute when they dealt with him The occupation of the church was disputed for a long time, but the name German Kingdom stuck and became more and more a symbol of identity and pride for the people in the north, especially the nobles who elected the king and served him, felt like they were German. The late Middle Ages began with one This powerful dynasty had ruled over the empire since the 12th century and had also conquered the Kingdom of Sicily in the south of Italy, which was a rich and prosperous region, and had feuded with the Pepses who envied their southern inheritance, but in 1245 it was Pope Innocence VI declared Emperor Frederick I II deposed, he hurled a long list of accusations and crimes at him, he handed him a harsh sentence from the church, years of war and chaos followed. Frederick II fought desperately for his power and his reputation the empire was facing a new time full of challenges and opportunities the deposition of Frederick led to a further intensification of the Hohenstaufen papal wars, which did not end even after Frederick's death 5 years later, but also with regard to Germany, Innocence did not remain idle - he encouraged them German princes to elect a counter-king who would oppose the Hohenstaufen Emperor and his son Konrad VI. Konrad was the son of Emperor Frederick and was elected Roman-German king in 1237 as a child after his father deposed his older half-brother Heinrich, who was already 42 years old Old Landgrave Heinrich Rasper was elected on May 22, 1246. However, Heinrich was hardly able to develop his influence as king because he died after less than a year as anti-king. However, the Hohenstaufen papal wars were still in full swing The still very young Count William of Holland in a letter that was written after William's election and addressed to the Pope states that William was chosen by the princes to whom the electoral states were elected while other princes applauded, the author evoking that some princes had the right However, when it comes to electing a king, others only have the right to pay homage, i.e. not to vote. The Holy Roman Empire was never a hereditary monarchy but rather an elective monarchy in the sense that the election of a king depends on the princes. Since the beginning of the 13th century, a change has been noticed and the need for some princes has become increasingly clear They had to be present at the election. They were later to be referred to as electors. They were the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz and Ria, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Maggrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Saxony and the King of Bohemia. It was unclear who exactly belonged to the college and who did not Whether the King of Bohemia was allowed to vote at all because he was not German and what should happen if the Electorate was divided among several officials shaped the history of the college of electors until the end of the Middle Ages in Germany since the election and coronation of William as king by the Archbishop of Cologne in 1248 an arbitrary situation until Cononrad i i moved to Italy after the death of his father in 1250 to save the Hohenstaufen inheritance at least there. Conrad's departure and his death in 1254 could actually have resulted in a strengthening of William, but that is what happened It was not in 1256 that the still young William died on a campaign against the Frisians, which he carried out in his function as Count of Holland. A period now began that was later commonly referred to as interregnation, which began not necessarily with the totwlhelm but equally if I even frequently It can be set with the deposition of Z or with his death in 1250, whatever the case may be. An interregnum usually refers to a period without a king, which does not apply to the interregnum in Germany because after Wilhelm's death in 256 there were not too few kings in Germany, but rather more than was actually needed In 1257, the German electors elected two rival kings Richard of Cornwell, the brother of the English king, and Alfonso of Castile, the king of Castile. Leon, none of them were able to assert themselves as emperor or rule effectively. The German princes took advantage of the weakness the crown and expanded their power especially the Bohemian King Ottoga i i after Richard's death in 1272 Pope Griger x demanded a new election the electors chose Rudolf of Habsburg an older count from southwest Germany King Ottoka of Bohemia was outraged and complained to the Pope he claimed that the electors had chosen an unsuitable count who was damaging the empire, all of them had also objected to this, claimed ottoka he said he was the rightful king but ottokas lilieb's complaint was unsuccessful the past confirmed Rudolf as king Rudolf was certain that he was the electors For this reason he gave them privileges and lands he married his daughters to them Ludwig I II of Falz Bavaria married Rudolf's daughter mechild Albrecht i i of Saxony married Gertrude Agnes in 1278 there was finally a decisive battle between Rudolf and Ottoka Rudolf and ottoka met in the battle of dnkut and meinespigen a bloody battle broke out in which Rudolf won and ottoka fell. Rudolf took the lands of ottoka into his possession and made them his inheritance and thus founded the basis for the Habsburg royal dynasty in Austria The Habsburgs ruled until 1918 but this victory Rudolf I also had disadvantages for him Ottoka's successor and son Wenceslaus I II tried to reverse the territorial losses and became an enemy of the Habsburgs Rudolf never moved to Rome to be crowned emperor and died in the year In 1291 without the imperial crown his son Albrecht, Duke of Austria since 1282, wanted to succeed him but that didn't happen. The electors did n't want a dynasty. They wanted to retain their influence on the royal elections and for this reason chose a weak king who they could control, namely Count Adolf of Nassau who only had a small amount of domestic power, he was elected Roman-German king on May 5, 1292. Adolf did not have much leeway on the political level. He was harnessed by his voters, especially Wenceslaus von Böhm and the Archbishop of Cologne, for their respective goals and had to fulfill their demands as Adolf but tried to expand his household power he violated the interests of the electors. They were dissatisfied with him and declared him deposed. They made Albrecht of Habsburg, the son of Rudolf of Habsburg, the new king. For the first time in the history of the empire, a king without prior papal excommunication deposed whoever elects kings can also depose them again as jör RGE summarized the electoral thinking at that time Albrecht and Adolf fought for the throne and met in the Battle of Göllheim in 1298 Albrecht defeated Adolf, who also fell in the battle, then Albrecht was able to become the Roman-German king was elected by all electors, however, Albrecht was described by a chronicler, more precisely by Matthias von Neuerburg, as the worse of the king, which suggests that he had killed his predecessor, which was also a novelty in the history of the empire, but apart from battles for the throne there was also culture and poetry With I in Germany around 1300, the production of the famous Heidelberg song manuscript began. The Heidelberg song manuscript, also known as the Kodex Manesse or large Heidelberg song manuscript, is one of the most important collections of German poetry. It was made in Zurich between 1300 and 1340 and contains 137 songs by 140 poets including Walter von der Vogelweide Wolfram von Eschenbach and Heinrich von mohungen the song manuscript is famous not only because of its literary value but also because of its artistic miniatures that portray the poets. The miniatures are 138 in total and show the poets in various situations at court, hunting or in war, they are a valuable testimony to the culture and life of the Middle Ages Albrecht continued his father's policy of consolidating his power in the German lands and asserting his hereditary claims to Austria and Bohemia, these lands were earlier In the possession of the Babenbergs and the Pchimelides, Albrecht had many opponents, however, the princes took away his rule and the Pope refused him the imperial crown. In 1308 he was murdered by his nephew John of Swabia, who felt disadvantaged by him. Frederick the Fair, the son of Albrecht de I was the next Hausburg candidate for the throne. He was young and good-looking but also weak and inexperienced and could not assert himself as king. The electors who had the right to vote elected Henry VI the Count of Luxembourg as their new king in 1308. Henry I vi had one Big dream He wanted to become emperor This dream came true in 1312 when he was crowned in Rome He was the first Luxembourger to ascend the emperor's throne in order to secure the future of his family Henry I VI married his son Johann with Elizabeth the daughter of the Bohemian King Wenceslas I He gave the Crown of Bohemia a rich and powerful country and named him his heir in the empire but thereby also made him a rival to the Habsburgs Henry I vi died in 1313, completely surprisingly his son Johann was not popular enough to succeed him the electors were faced with one new election and were divided they elected two kings like one in 1257 one of the elected kings was Ludwig II from the house of Wisselsbach which had appointed the Dukes of Bavaria and the Fgraen vom Rehein since 1180 and 1214 and through his mother was a grandson of Rudolf the I from Habsburg was Frederick the Fair, the other chosen was the son of Albrecht de I from the House of Habsburg. They were cousins ​​but hated each other and fought a long war for the crown. Ludwig had the majority of the electors on his side. Frederick the Fair, on the other hand, had the favor of the Pope They fought many battles. Ludwig I was finally able to defeat his opponent Frederick the Handsome near Müldorf and made him his prisoner, but released him again in 1325 to make peace with the church. In 1328, Ludwig also traveled to Rome to find out about an antipope To have the emperor crowned, the Duke of Austria Frederick the Fair acknowledged his defeat and swore loyalty to the fourth. He gave up his claim to the royal dignity and retired as a duke. He died in 1330 30 of an injury he sustained in a tournament The conflict had long-term effects on the balance of power in the empire and the relations between the emperor and Pope. Louis I tried to strengthen his position through alliances with the Italian cities and the French king, but this led to the displeasure of Pope John 22, who declared him deposed Louis reacted to the situation with a campaign to Italy where, as already mentioned, he had the imperial crown placed on his head by an antipope in 1328. He thereby divided Christianity and triggered a schism. Ludwig IV also lost the support of many German princes who rejected his expansive policy and himself distanced himself from him, he died in 1347 without finally ending his dispute over the throne. His successor Charles I from the House of Luxembourg, the son of King John of Bohemia and Elizabeth from the House of Chimelides, took over the throne. Charles I was in Prague in 1316 as the son of John of Luxembourg He was born King of Bohemia and received a comprehensive education in France, where he received his name Charles from his godfather, the French King Charles the Four. His birth name was after the patron saint of Bohemia, Wenceslaus. From 1346 to 1359, a terrible plague like this raged in Europe Bacteria caused by rat fleas transmitted to humans The plague killed about a third of the European population People did not understand where the plague came from and looked for explanations Many blamed the Jews for it They accused them of poisoning the wells or of making a deal with the devil also hated Jews for religious and economic reasons. Jews often lived in their own neighborhoods and adhered to their laws and needs. They were the only ones allowed to lend money, which brought them envy and hatred. Jews became symbols of the plague and had to endure many persecutions and epogromes In many cities they were murdered, burned or expelled. Some took their own lives rather than surrender to the Christians. The prgroms often took place before the plague reached the places, so the Jews became victims of hatred and fear. Charles VI only protected the Jews In his kingdom of Bohemia in the other parts of the empire, however, he did nothing to protect the Jews but sold their protective rights, such as in Nuremberg where he even had the Jewish quarter demolished. He was crowned emperor in Rome in 1355 and left to the French heir to the throne in 1377 Charles I is best known for his promotion of the culture of education and the legal system. He founded the first German university in Prague in 138, which is named after him. He had the Fightdom and the Charles Bridge built and made Prague an important center of Europe. He took his Autobiography the Vita Caroli quarti and the Golden Bull which in 1356 defined the rights of the electors and the rules for electing kings. In addition, he expanded his household power through the acquisition or inheritance of Silesia, Lusatia, Brandenburg and other areas. When he died in Prague in 1378, he was buried in the fitdom He was succeeded by his 16-year-old son Wenceslaus, but in the same year a schissma broke out that once again split Europe into two parts. The Western schism had all started with a power struggle between the French King Philip VI and Pope Boniface the 8th. They fought over the Taxation of the clergy that the king wanted to increase the pope resisted and rested with the ban the king then had him captured and mistreated the pope died shortly afterwards the popes withdrew to Avignon where they were under the protection of the French king they stayed there For almost 70 years, what many Christians perceived as a seclusion, they demanded the return of the Pope to Rome, the Eternal City of the Church. Saint Catherine of Siena was one of the most zealous petitioners, she wrote letters to Pope Gregory X and actually brought him to Rome He arrived in 1377 but died soon afterwards the new Pope, the VI, was an Italian who angered the French cardinals. He was strict and reform-minded and wanted to free the church from corruption and luxury. He therefore called new cardinals who were loyal to him the old ones However, French cardinals felt ignored and insulted. They moved back to Avignon and elected an antipope who called himself Clement the 7th. This was the beginning of the Western schism, so Christianity was divided into two halves excommunicated each other and accused each other of heresy and schissma and tried to win the princes and peoples to their sides. They offered privileges and indulgences and red with the curse and the war. The Roman-German king Wenel was a supporter of Urbahns and wanted to end the schism at least for the time being and to restore the unity of the church, he therefore founded the urban alliance of an alliance of princes and cities in 1379 that were supposed to support the Pope in Rome. He hoped that all the princes of the empire would follow his example, but unfortunately he was wrong. Many princes supported Clement because they wanted France or feared the Curia or because they hoped to gain advantages from them. Wenceslaus remained a weak king in the empire. He did not care about the affairs of the empire and was often absent. He was never crowned emperor because there was no pope who could have crowned him emperor himself An imperial coronation in the age of schism would probably not have been recognized at all. He also had no heir who could have succeeded him. His younger brother Sigesmund was king of Hungary but he had his own problems. He had to fight against the Ottomans who threatened Europe from the Balkans. He lost against them in the Battle of Nikopolus 1396 Wenceslas lost more and more reputation and authority 1393 he was captured by some nobles and in 1400 we declared deposed he died in 1419 without having solved the schissma his successor became a much weaker ruler falsgraf rrecht i dr von der Falz, who was not only in constant need of money but, due to his comparatively low domestic power, could not prevent the Marbach League from uniting against him in 1405. When, after Ludwig de V, the second Felsbacher on the throne died in 1410, the crown went back to the Luxembourgers More precisely, Siegesmund Siegesmund wanted to resolve the schissma that had become even worse in 1409 when the Council of Pisa, which was supposed to end the schissma, had generated a new pope named Alexander the V, who died shortly afterwards and his successor John the 23rd showed no signs to resign at the Council of Constance from 1414 to 1418, the first major church council on German soil, all popes who resided in Rome in Avignon and with John de 23 also in Pisa were deposed and a new pope with Martin V was elected later rose with the Council of Basel from 1431 to 1448 was still a powerful council against the pope that denied the pope his authority and made independent politics, but it dissolved in 1449. In Germany and Bohemia, the Hussite Wars reigned from 1419 to 1434 in which the followers of the janhus burned in 1415 on Siegesmund's orders janhu's sermons were based on the writings of the Englishman John Wiliff in the Four Prague Articles of 1420, the rebels demanded the Lord's Supper in both forms, which specifically meant the abolition of the special position of clergy, the church's renunciation of its secular power, freedom of preaching and punishment of sins It was not until 1434 that the war finally ended with an equalization of Siegesmund and the Hussites, the moderate Hussites were recognized. Siegesmund was allowed to take over the inheritance of his brother Wenceslaus as King of Bohemia. On December 9, 1437, Emperor Siegesmund died. He left no son, only a daughter with Albrecht von Austria was married, who then became king himself. Albert's rule was short and hardly noticeable in Germany. However, with him began a rule of the Habsburgs that lasted over 300 years, who had made a king with Rudolf the I and were to rule the Holy Roman Empire until 1806 and from From 1804 to 1918, Albrecht died as Emperor of Austria after a short reign. His successor was Frederick II in 1419. Frederick's reign would be worth a video in itself, so let's summarize it briefly. His reign was the longest of all Roman-German rulers and lasted until 1493. During his reign he had Conflicts with Hungary, Bohemia, France, Switzerland and the Netherlands. He also concluded a treaty with the Pope, the Vienna Concordat, which had an impact on the church in Germany. Although he cared more about Austria than the empire, he expanded his hereditary lands and secured the Burgundian inheritance His son Maximilian I was particularly notable for his victory over the Burgundian Duke Charles the Kold, who wanted to create a closed empire. He encouraged the princes to protect the German nation. Frederick was the last emperor to be crowned in Rome. He was often mentioned in older research seen as a weak, inactive ruler who neglected and destroyed the empire. In more recent research, however, his role as a persistent and cautious politician is appreciated who created the basis for the rise of the Habsburgs and the consolidation of the empire. Under his son Maximilian I I this process of consolidation became of the empire was completed and increasingly consolidated by the wms court day of 1495 by marrying his son Philip into the Spanish royal family, Maximilian created the basis for the Habsburg monarchy of Spain and the rise of Habsburg to become a world power, but a new challenge awaited his successor Charles V, Germany and The Reformation under its spokesman Martin Luther was supposed to tear Europe apart again and finally usher in the modern era, but that is a different story