The Colosseum: Inside the Political Stage of Ancient Emperors

One night, 2,000 years ago, the citizens of Rome tossed and turned in their sleep. The highly anticipated festival set to begin the following day was the reason. The day dawned. Early in the morning, they rushed out of their homes. Their destination, the newly built amphitheater. It was the grand opening of the megastructure. Eight long years had passed since the groundbreaking. It was an edifice whose magnificence and splendor had never been matched in the long history of Rome. Marty Ellis, the Roman poet, sang the praises of the Colosseum using the following words, Egyptians, be not proud of thy pyramids. Assyrians, be not proud of Babylon. They have no place in front of the emperor's new amphitheater. It is an object of glory which will overshadow all structures. The emperor's new amphitheater, which the poet describes as the greatest structure ever built by man, was the Colosseum. One loses all sense of time here in Rome. This is because the city is replete with the vestiges of a thousand-year empire. The streets are overflowing with traces of Rome's past, her once glorious art, culture, and architecture. One illustrious historian tells us that all ancient cultures flowed into the great lake called Rome, and all cultures since then flowed out of the great lake called Rome. In other words, Rome was the mother of Western civilization. The Colosseum is the most famous building erected during the Roman Empire. Currently, only about a third of the original structure remains standing. Yet at the time, it was the most massive of all amphitheaters found throughout the entire empire. It also served as the political stage of emperors. Eighty years after the birth of Christ, a spectacular festival was held here in order to celebrate the opening of the Colosseum. The festivities were to continue for a hundred days, and each day would be full of marvels and unusual sights. Emperor Titus was master of the ceremonies. The newly crowned emperor was holding a grand festival for his subjects. So you have all kinds of incredible activities taking place inside the Colosseum, but one event that people are still talking about is absolutely incredible. It is the Naumachia. It's a ship battle inside the Colosseum. It's hard to imagine that mock naval battles were held here. In his poem, which describes the hundred-day-long festival, Martialis writes the following, You who have come from afar to regard this sacred performance. Do not be amazed at the sea of water and battle of ships. To tell you the truth, this place is land. So how is this possible? The fact that the Colosseum was equipped with over a hundred drinking fountains shows that water channels ran into the structure. We can find more clues to this inside the building. There are clear traces of a channel that once surrounded the entire perimeter of the amphitheater. We have here the situation and see the channel around the arena. The water came in this channel from the outside and go along the arena up the seats of cenotaphs. Connected to the channel are 30 shafts which allow the water to flow out. This water then flowed into the underground area beneath the arena. We have here some draft shafts and this draft shaft was collected with the channel of the upper level and from this channel the water came down up in the draft shafts and from here go out into the apogee and fillet the apogee for the Nomarchy. At the time of its opening, the Colosseum's underground section looked different than it does today. The various underground structures that crowd the Colosseum's basement were built in later times during renovations. So what did the amphitheater look like at the time? The Colosseum's authorities have reconstructed part of the removable stage that would have been in place during Titus's time. This would have been how the stage looked in its entirety. In order to conduct the mock battle, both the arena floor and wooden posts were removed and the empty basement was filled with water flowing in from the underground channels through the 30 water shafts. It's estimated that it would have taken anywhere from two to five hours to fill the arena with the 65,000 liters of water necessary. Ships were floated on the artificial lake. Nomarchy were originally reenactments of naval battles which were staged on lakes or rivers by soldiers in order to celebrate victory in war. But slaves and criminals participated in the Nomarchy staged in the Colosseum and they were forced to fight to the death until one side was completely eradicated. Another popular event at the 100-day festival was the animal hunt. Beasts of prey would be set loose in the arena and forced to fight with people. Martialis describes one such event in vivid prose. He ran his sword through the bear, the king of the beasts. He also slew giant lions and charging leopards that would have been a match for Hercules himself. Among the bones displayed in the second exhibition room of the Colosseum were bones from tropical animals that do not live in Italy. Where did the animals come from? At the time, Rome ruled most of the known world. Her territory spanned from Scotland in the north to the Mediterranean and even Egypt in the south. Thanks to Rome's vast territories, they were able to bring in exotic animals such as elephants from northern Africa, hippopotamuses from Nubia and lions from Mesopotamia. The animals were of tremendous symbolic importance for Rome's games and they represented not just the civilizing function of Rome and conquering these animals themselves, they represented the very provinces that Rome had conquered. And the further flung they were and the more exotic the animals, well, that helped reinforce the message of Rome's power. According to records, some 5,000 animals were slain on the first day of the festival alone. And this extravagant festival was held continuously for 100 long days. But why? What spurred Emperor Titus to throw such an extravaganza of blood and gore? The answer to this question can be found in the story of Titus' father, Emperor Vespasian. In 69 AD, Titus and his father Vespasian were in charge of putting down the rebellion in the far flung province of Judea. At the time, Rome was marked by civil unrest. Following the death of Emperor Nero, who killed himself as he was being chased by rebels, there was a period of chaos in which three different emperors ascended the throne within a year. The legions occupying the eastern provinces of the empire proclaimed Vespasian as the ninth emperor of Rome. And the Senate gave its official approval. Vespasian handed control of Judea to his son Titus and quickly returned to Rome. The first task at hand for the new emperor was to rebuild the city which had been laid waste by years of civil strife. More importantly, he had to establish his authority as the emperor. Unlike the previous emperors who were either royalty or from the aristocracy, Vespasian was born a commoner. In order to solicit popular support, he had to cut a striking contrast from Nero who had oppressed the people with his tyranny. What could he do for the people of Rome who were disillusioned after years of civil strife and despotism? Vespasian decided to give them a grand gift in the form of the Colosseum. The emperors of Rome had built amphitheaters in all the cities in Rome. Building an amphitheater where gladiator fights could take place was one of the most effective ways to gain popular support. This was essential to Vespasian who lacked the blue blood to legitimize his authority. Gladiatorial games were all the rage in Rome. The successful gladiators were recognized wherever they went. A banquet would always be held on the night before the fight. Most gladiators were slaves who were taken as prisoners of war. Despite their lowly status, these men found fame and fortune. Their sweat was sold as perfume and women paid to be allowed to meet them. Gladiatorial combat was the most popular sport in Rome. This is the reason that emperor Vespasian decided to build an amphitheater. But he wanted his amphitheater to be special. He wanted it to be a structure that would overshadow any structure that the previous emperors had built. The emperor Vespasian is a new emperor and he wants to solidify his rule and he wants to construct structures that are dynastic and content. So with the Colosseum you're both saying here's a new Flavian venue for the people of Rome and of course here is an essential public entertainment venue for the people of Rome. It was a calculated political move. Even the location of the Colosseum had political intent. Vespasian placed his amphitheater in the former location of emperor Nero's palace which was situated in the heart of Rome. Called the Domus Aurea or golden house, the lavish estate had some 150 rooms and a vast artificial lake at its center. In 64 AD, a massive fire ravaged Rome incinerating two-thirds of the city and leaving thousands either homeless or dead. After the blaze, Nero confiscated 800,000 square meters of land damaged by the fire and there he erected his golden house. Vespasian decided to demolish the palace built by Nero for his personal use and build a public facility that all the people of Rome could enjoy. This is the reason that the Colosseum unlike other amphitheaters is located in the heart Nero had expropriated the houses to build a part of his immense residence and Vespasian destroys and buries the Domus Aurea to restore with the Colosseum the space to the people and it was a political operation of great return of image. It was 72 AD and construction had finally commenced. Construction of the Colosseum was a truly monumental undertaking. The structure would be unusual in that it was built by combining two amphitheaters. With a plan circumference of 527 meters and length of 180 meters, the sheer size of the building was a challenge in itself. But the biggest problem was the building's 52 meter height. This is as tall as 17 or 18 story apartment buildings today. It seemed impossible given that the entire structure would be built using stone. Well actually to build a structure as the Colosseum it would have been possible with the traditional techniques used in the past. Even if the pyramid of Egypt had very large important structure from the structural point of view the conception was very simple and the equilibrium very easy because the shape itself facilitated the equilibrium. To build the Colosseum was required to develop two new points and different a new structural conception and new materials. The most important innovation in realizing the new structural paradigm was the arch. The arch was built upon a wooden scaffold with a keystone being inserted at the very top. By dispersing the weight on either side the keystone made it possible to stack more rock on top of the arch. The Colosseum is a veritable symphony of arches. Countless arches were used in order to support the building's interior to form a honeycomb like structure. The systematic use of arches has allowed to realize in the Colosseum a structure that is light comparing with the dimension and very strong. The walls were replaced from a kind of light walls made from pillars and arch. So the space in between the pillars and space were a kind of a large window and that reduced a lot the weight of the structure without reducing compromise the strength. The arch revolutionized Roman architecture. By reducing the weight and volume of materials it allowed for much taller buildings to be erected. Nevertheless the arch alone could not support the 52 meter high building. Another innovation was also necessary. By examining the ruins of the Colosseum up close one may be surprised to find traces of modern day construction materials. These materials include bricks and concrete. The Romans used concrete. They made a material called opus cementosium from which originated the modern word cement. They mix this material with sand and pebbles in order to form concrete. Opus cementosium was made by mixing a special ingredient into lime and water. That material was volcanic ash. But they discovered that the powder taken in Pozzuoli close to Naples close to the Vesuvio volcano had the characteristic the power of creating a very strong bond between the stone or bricks. Terracotta bricks were also used in the place of stone. Over a million such bricks were used in the construction of the Colosseum. Putting some bricks on the two faces of the walls so that to create the two kind of small walls in a certain way and to fill inside these two little thin walls a concrete made with pozzuolite cement and and small stones. The Romans were able to achieve the Colosseum's massive height by combining various different materials. They invented and used lighter and sturdier materials. This brought on a revolution in Roman architecture and made it possible to build the Colosseum. The Colosseum was a compendium of cutting-edge construction materials and equipment. One such example was the use of the state-of-the-art crane that they invented. A crane equipped with pulleys was used in the construction. The machine was indispensable in lifting heavy materials to the upper scaffold. Vespasian dedicated himself to his project. Slowly but surely, an edifice began to rise which had the beauty and majesty of a structure built by the emperor himself. The outer walls of the Colosseum were lined with marble and each floor was supported by Greek columns in a different style. The first floor with simple yet elegant door columns, the second floor with curvaceous ionic columns, and the third with ornate Corinthian columns. The arena floor was covered in sand and the terrace seats were made from marble. Mats were erected at the very top of the Colosseum in order to install something known as the velaria, a retractable awning which could be opened and closed by a thousand workers pulling on ropes. Thanks to this device, spectators could sit in the cool of the shade on the most blistering days. The statues which stood between the arches of the exterior wall revealed the true significance of the Colosseum. Vespasian had returned the statues which had decorated Nero's private garden to the public. Also, he had the massive statue of Nero which stood in front of the golden house turned into a statue of the sun god. It was from this colossus that the name Colosseum originated. Through the Colosseum, Vespasian hoped that he would be remembered as the emperor who restored Rome's republican values. Eight years after construction commenced, the Colosseum finally stood finished and Martialis sang its praises with the following words, Rome has regained her former glory thanks to the emperor's wise reign. A former seat of tyranny has become the citizen's delight. But the successful construction of the Colosseum left latter-day scholars confounded. Rome's treasury was bankrupt due to the reckless reigns of Nero and the three emperors after him. How did Vespasian manage to procure the finances for such a massive construction project? The answer is inside the Colosseum. It can be found in an inscription that was discovered near the Colosseum's southern entrance. The letters were carved in a later period. But by connecting the nail holes, archaeologists were able to decipher the original letters. This is what it says. Emperor Vespasian built a new amphitheater using the trophies of war. In other words, it was war that made it possible to construct the Colosseum. In February of 70 AD, the fortress walls of Jerusalem were breached. Titus, who was waging a war against Jewish rebels in place of his father, had crushed the final pockets of rebellion and taken Jerusalem. The Arch of Titus was built to celebrate this victory. The arch depicts Titus' triumphant return to Rome. Joyous soldiers carry the sacred relics they looted from the Temple of Jerusalem, such as a table, trumpet, and seven-branched menorah. It is said that an endless line of booty-filled carts accompanied Titus on his return. The countless treasures looted from Jerusalem were used to finance the amphitheater's construction, and 30,000 Jewish slaves were put to work. The Colosseum was a gift of conquest. In 79 AD, with this magnum opus nearing completion, Emperor Vespasian passed away. It was up to Titus, the new emperor, to open the Colosseum. The Colosseum was an important political stage for Titus as well. The new emperor wanted to hold a festival which would match his father's great amphitheater in extravagance and grandeur, and he planned a 100-day-long festival in order to accomplish this. People had to get tickets in order to participate in the festival. There were 72 entrances leading into the Colosseum, and each ticket was marked with a specific entrance that the spectator had to take. Thanks to this system, thousands of people could enter and exit the building effectively. It only took 30 minutes for 50,000 people to empty the stadium completely. Each entrance led to a different section. The seats in the lowest section were reserved for aristocrats. Above them sat the knights, and above them sat the commoners. Finally, the uppermost section, which could only be reached by taking a very steep stairway, was reserved for people without Roman citizenship and women. These seats were free. The seating in the Colosseum is very hierarchical. The people with the most money are the closest to the action. They're the closest to the arena floor, and they're the ones who paid for their seats, so to speak. As you get further away from the floor, further up, people have less and less money. Well, of course, after the senators and the knights, then you start going into the lower strata of society, even slaves who had been freed or slaves who had not been freed, and this is Roman society in miniature. The emperor's entrance route and seat were carefully designed for maximum exposure. The emperor sat at the pinnacle of Roman society, and the Colosseum was the perfect stage to showcase his power. For 100 days, the Colosseum was a sea of excitement, and the highlight of the festival were the gladiator fights. Gladiator shows were a source of great thrill. In a fight, a single moment can mean the difference between life and death. It was the emperor who decided whether the defeated would live or die, but he did not make this decision solely on his own. He made it based on the opinion of his people. Unfortunately, the people have chosen death today. The Colosseum allowed the emperor to listen to his people directly. It was an opportunity to see the tide of popular sentiment with his own eyes. Such public entertainment venues were the only places where the emperor could meet with his people. The Colosseum represents a very important venue for the emperor to communicate with the general public. So you've got 50,000, maybe 60,000 or even more people there watching the entertainment, but it's also an occasion for the emperor to gauge that relationship and ultimately, let's say, win over or have the favor of the public. And the Colosseum then is not just entertainment, but it's a very important political activity and a key part of that relationship then is for the emperor to have a great relationship with the public. Titus was well aware of the importance of listening to the people. He had paid a high price to learn this lesson. Titus fell in love during his campaign in Judea. His lover was Berenice, the daughter of King Herod Agrippa I, who was friendly with the Romans. Titus loved the foreign princess deeply. After his conquest of Jerusalem, Titus returned to his father in Rome, but the two lovers did not remain separated for long. Berenice soon came to Rome to be with her lover. It was a passionate reunion, and their future together seemed full of happiness. The lovers lived together on Titus' estate, and Titus wished to take Berenice as his wife. Nevertheless, their love was scorned by the people of Rome. They would not allow a Jewish princess to become the future empress of Rome. They still remember how Mark Antony's love for Cleopatra had thrown the empire into chaos and war. Titus had many political rivals, and in order to maintain his grip on power, he was forced to send his beloved back to Judea. Titus chose to remain single for the rest of his life, even after he ascended the throne. The public, the people of Rome, was very, very powerful, and the emperor was very much aware of this important relationship between ruler and the ruled. Now, the public could step in when there was, say, a public execution and complain and even halt that execution. When somebody was going to be put to death in the gladiatorial arena, and the emperor said sure, again, the public could step in and say no. Their voice was powerful, and the emperor had to hear them. If there were problems with the grain supply, if there was risk of famine, they would speak out, and the emperor had to alleviate that kind of tension, or next thing you know, you'd have an angry mob, and they'd overrun the city, they'd overrun the palace, and they would kill the emperor. Titus received the admiration of his people, because he listened to them. Nevertheless, his reign ended after only two years. In 81 AD, Emperor Titus passed away, and his brother Domitian ascended the throne. The Colosseum was actually completed during Emperor Domitian's reign. Until then, the Colosseum had only three floors, but Domitian added the fourth and final floor. An even bigger change was the installation of basement facilities, in order to put on a totally different kind of show. The area six meters under the ground, which had been left empty for mock naval battles, was made into a complicated maze, which served as a waiting area for the participants of various games. Inside were wild beasts, criminals awaiting execution, and gladiators, who would engage in bloody battles only a few minutes later. This was a dark underground world, where men and animals, who would soon kill each other, awaited their moment of truth. We are here in the Colosseum, in the underground of the Colosseum, and this was the place for the gladiators and the animals. And we stay here in the floor with the lift system. And with this lift system, the animals go up into the arena. Traces of these lifts still remain in the basement. This is the spot where a capstan once stood. This is what it probably looked like. Countless slaves were employed to turn the capstan and provide power for the lift. It's estimated that at the time, there were at least 28 lifts in the Colosseum. On days when games were held, these lifts would be operated to move animals and props up to the arena. While games were being played above ground in the arena, the participants of the next games would head to the lifts. The capstan would turn and the lift would begin moving. Like magic, the participants would appear out of the ground. They were defying gravity. Emperor Domitian undertook the massive underground renovations precisely for this effect. He added to this dramatic effect by holding games at nighttime. Like his father and brother before him, he staged extravagant shows in order to showcase his power to the world. Because it was built as a venue for emperors to communicate with the people, the Colosseum could become the greatest structure in the history of Rome. Now, the Colosseum has been stripped of its former glory. Goethe once remarked, Rome must be viewed not with the eyes of the body. Rather, it must be viewed with the eyes of the heart. It is so with the Colosseum as well. Only a third of the original structure remains standing today. But if we look at it with the eyes of our hearts, we will see that it tells a story that is as timeless as the civilization which produced it.