The Most Controversial Ancient Philosophy

In the second century A.D., at the height of the Roman Empire, a dying man in the remote Lysian city of Oinawanda commissioned one of the ancient world's most remarkable inscriptions. About 25,000 words long, it set forth the doctrines of Epicureanism, the controversial philosophy that claimed pleasure as the greatest good. Oinawanda was a surprising place for a philosophical manifesto. Located amid rugged hills nearly a mile above sea level, it was far from any major city or trade route. The population, including the surrounding villages, probably never exceeded 10,000. The wealth, such as it was, came from herds of goats and sheep. Diogenes, the author of the great inscription, must have belonged to one of Oinawanda's leading families. As a young man, he seemed to have received rhetorical and philosophical training in Rhodes. Later in life, he returned to Rhodes each year to escape his native city's harsh winters. He remained, however, a citizen of Oinawanda, and it was for the benefit of his fellow citizens, sometime in the reign of Hadrian, that Diogenes set forth the teachings of Epicurus. According to Epicurus, happiness was the sole legitimate goal of existence. The essence of happiness is freedom from anxiety. Since the greatest source of mental disturbance is fear about death in the afterlife, it is necessary to understand the true nature of the universe. All things consist of atoms, infinitesimally small particles with varying properties. Atoms drift through an infinite void, temporarily combining to form the objects of the sensible world. Human bodies are made of atoms. So are human souls. And, like bodies, they are dispersed into their component atoms after death. There is, therefore, no afterlife, and no cause to fear the torments of Hades. Souls, Epicurus believed, receive impressions from simulacra emitted by the atoms of objects perceived by the senses. These, and the natural impulses of the flesh, are the sources of pain and pleasure. The proper function of the human mind is to minimize pain and maximize pleasure. Though the body's needs should be met, the essence of pleasure is not sensual indulgence. It is ataraxia, the tranquility that comes from being sufficient in oneself. All sources of unnecessary mental disturbance should be removed. If possible, one should not engage with the storms and stresses of politics. Marriage, likewise, is best avoided. Friendship, however, is essential, especially the friendship of like-minded people who have also found tranquility in themselves. From the beginning, followers of Epicurus were attacked by members of the other philosophical schools. They were accused of being atheists, unfairly, since they believed that the gods existed, but took no notice of mankind. They were also pilloried for their hedonism, despite the ascetic nature of the life that Epicurus preached. Epicurean philosophers began to circulate among the Roman elite in the second century BC. By the final decades of the Republic, several prominent Romans were adherents, including Cicero's friend Atticus and Caesar's assassin Cassius. Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Caesar's father-in-law, was a patron of Philodemus of Gadara, the Epicurean philosopher whose library, carbonized by Vesuvius, was discovered in the villa of the papyri. It was in this period that Lucretius, one of the greatest Roman poets, composed De rerum natura, On the Nature of Things, a survey of Epicurean philosophy, in epic verse. There are few passages more stirring than the praise of Epicurus at the beginning of the third book. The terrors of the mind fly away, the walls of the world open, and the gods appear in their majesty. But hell is nowhere to be seen. Then trembling in ecstasy overtake me, for you have laid nature bare. Although Lucretius died, driven mad, it was later rumored, by a love potion, before he could publish his masterpiece. De rerum natura circulated widely among the Roman elite. Virgil alluded to it. Cicero praised it. Lucretius's epic, however, never attained anything like the popularity of the Aeneid, partly because of its philosophical complexity, but also because the Epicureans remained on the fringes of Roman thought. More on that after the break. Not long ago, I had a fever that wouldn't go away. My primary care doctor had no appointments available for weeks, and I couldn't wait that long. So I turned to ZocDoc, this video's sponsor. ZocDoc allows you to search and compare local, in-network doctors. With more than 150,000 providers, there are plenty of options, and the ZocDoc website features detailed doctor profiles and patient reviews to help you choose. You can book visits with a single click. I was able to find an appointment for the following day, was diagnosed with a sinus infection, and prescribed an antibiotic that cleared my symptoms. ZocDoc is free, easy, and a great way to put your health first. So don't delay. Follow the link in the description or visit zocdoc.com slash toldenstone to book your appointment today. Returning to our topic. In several of the philosophical treatises that he wrote in the last years of his life, Cicero, in this, as so often, a spokesman for the Roman elite, attacked Epicureanism. The Epicureans, he believed, would cause Romans to turn away from their traditional religion, the ultimate source of ethics. He was equally critical of the Epicurean aversion to politics, which would draw the governing class from its duties. Even Romans who were attracted to Epicureanism seem to have often been less doctrinaire than their Greek counterparts. Memmius, Lucretius' patron, bought and threatened to demolish the house of Epicurus in Athens. Piperius Pidas, a Roman gentleman with professed Epicurean leanings, once told his household philosopher that one existential question troubled him above all others. Where to eat dinner? A silver cup found at Piscoriale, near Pompeii, shows Epicurus and Zeno, founder of Stoicism, arguing in the underworld about whether pleasure is truly supreme. The skeleton of Epicurus, however, is distracted by a piece of cake, a nice epitome of the fact that, at Rome, Epicureanism blended easily into less philosophical forms of indulgence. More doctrinaire varieties of Epicureanism flourished in the culturally Greek eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. At Athens, the school of Epicurus survived through at least the reign of Hadrian, when Trajan's widow Plotina submitted a petition on behalf of the school's leader. The satirist Lucian, writing a few decades later, presents Epicureans as the chief opponents of the false prophet Alexander of Abunatechos. As before, however, Epicureanism remained controversial. Plutarch wrote several treatises attacking the sect, including one memorably titled It Is Not Possible to Live Pleasurably According to the Doctrines of Epicurus. Like Cicero, Plutarch objected to the Epicureans' reluctance to engage with public life. He regarded his own Platonism as both more sensible and more civic-minded. We don't know whether Diogenes of Oinoanda was aware of Plutarch's treatises. He certainly knew, however, that only a small minority of his fellow citizens shared his Epicurean convictions. It was to redress their ignorance that he commissioned the Great Inscription. With the exception of the last part, a treatise on old age composed by Diogenes himself, the inscription presented a comprehensive summary of orthodox Epicureanism. Physics, ethics, and a host of other topics, including a sustained polemic against the Stoic view of the gods. Did anyone read? Did anyone care? We have no way of knowing. But for well over a century, until it was demolished for building material in late antiquity, the inscription proclaimed Diogenes' faith in the power of his philosophy to free the people of Oinoanda from fear. To ease your anxieties, join a Told-in-Stone group tour. I recently announced my June 2027 trip to the Roman ruins of Romania, which will explore all the premier ancient sites and some of the most spectacular natural scenery along what was once the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. You'll find a link in the description. There are a few places still left on my May 2027 trip to Jordan. Follow the link below to learn more. Visit the Told-in-Stone Patreon for additional content, including my recent interview with actor and classics major Tom Hiddleston. Finally, check out my other channels, Scenic Routes to the Past and Told-in-Stone Footnotes. And, as always, thanks for watching!