Chains of Influence I - Early Renaissance

In the late 1300s, much of northern Italy was controlled by Milan-based ruler Gian Galeazzo Visconti, many seeing him as a new form of Caesar. His troops were on the march and headed towards Florence. It was about to be surrounded. Florence was preparing for a siege, but unexpectedly Visconti died of the plague, ending the impending takeover. The citizens of Florence felt it was a divine miracle, but it also produced a unique feeling of independence and a strong sense of pride in their city. This renewed patriotism among the Florentines sparked interest in city beautification as well as the desire to complete unfinished works of art that sat dormant. As a result, Florence became the hub or breeding ground of innovation, renewal, and a quest for magnificence. It was the birthplace of the Renaissance. In 1401, as part of this renewal, a local guild responsible for maintaining and decorating the baptistry of San Giovanni decided to hold a competition to create a beautiful set of decorative bronze doors for the north entrance. Artists from all over submitted entries, and in the end, sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti, only 23 at the time, won the bid. In second place was Filippo Brunelleschi, a man who would play a key role in the development of Renaissance ideals. The bronze doors would take Ghiberti over 20 years to complete. Assisting him for the first few years was an apprentice who was one of his most promising students, a young man named Donatello. He would eventually become one of the most famous sculptors in Italian history. Donatello became close friends with Brunelleschi, and although he was 10 years younger, they shared an interest in goldsmithing, sculpture, and Roman art. After leaving his apprenticeship, Donatello joined his older friend on a trip to Rome in order to study Roman antiquities, an experience that would greatly impact both artists' work. Brunelleschi is said to have been so enthralled with Roman architecture that he intensely studied their construction and took exact measurements of their structures. It was during this time that he rediscovered the concept of linear perspective, a scientific method of providing depth of space in art. This concept had disappeared with the fall of the Roman Empire and involved establishing a single vanishing point along the horizon line in a scene where parallel lines of a plane converge to imply depth. There was a form of perspective in art leading up to the early 1400s, such as in the work of Giotto and Duccio, and in the Netherlands in the work of Jan van Eyck. But it was more intuitive, not based on mathematics. Asian artists long before the Renaissance implied perspective through receding size, overlapping elements, and the use of fading values. But it was Brunelleschi, who's credited with reintroducing and perfecting the concept of linear perspective, using geometric calculations to establish visual depth. Once back in Florence, the two friends began incorporating what they had seen into their art, including some classical themes such as the use of columns, more naturalistic figures in fabrics, and, of course, perspective. Both men were primarily sculptors, although Brunelleschi would focus almost entirely on architecture upon his return to Florence. His experience in Rome seems to have been his only architectural training, and yet, upon returning to Florence, he decided to partake in another artistic competition, the design and construction of the dome of the Florence Cathedral. The original builders had planned for a dome over a hundred years earlier, but throughout all that time, no one had been able to solve the problem of how to actually construct a dome that would span the width of almost 140 feet. So it sat there unfinished for generations. As part of the artistic renewal of the city, the committee that oversaw the cathedral held a competition for design concepts, hoping to complete the cathedral at last. The two top contenders were Ghiberti and Brunelleschi once again, but this time Brunelleschi won. He constructed a two-scaled model of the dome as he proposed it and convinced the judges of its feasibility. Brunelleschi both established the design and supervised its construction. He invented machinery specifically for the task, enabling workers to avoid using ramps or wooden trusses, which could collapse. He also came up with the concept of herringbone bricklaying, which increased the stability and strength of the dome's surface. Future men of art and science, including the renowned Leonardo da Vinci, would study and even make drawings of Brunelleschi's inventions and ideas. In the end, the dome was a success and would use over four million bricks and weigh over 25,000 tons. It's said to be the greatest architectural feat in the Western world and is still the largest masonry dome in existence. It's often the very symbol of the Renaissance. When you consider that Brunelleschi had no formal architectural training other than the self-study he did in Rome, it's absolutely amazing. He really was a Renaissance man. The dome wasn't his only contribution to the Renaissance. Brunelleschi was hired to design the Hospital of the Innocents, a home for at-risk women and children, the Pazzi Chapel, the Caponi Chapel in the Church of Santa Felicità, and the Basilica of Santo Spirito. He was also commissioned by the Medici family to redesign the Romanesque Basilica of San Lorenzo, which would be the final resting place for the Medici, and contains artwork that is basically a who's who of Renaissance artists. As mentioned, Brunelleschi and Donatello had brought back the concept of linear perspective from their time in Rome. Initially, it was only applied to their works in architecture and sculpture, but a young painter and mutual friend would pick up on the concept, as well as the classical themes, and incorporate it into painting. This artist was commonly known as Masaccio. Masaccio was a revolutionary painter. He came from a town in Tuscany along the Arno River, 40 miles outside of Florence. Not much is known about his initial training, but we do know that in January 1422, he joined the Florence Painters Guild, which required by law at least three years of apprenticeship. So we know he was mentored somewhere. Most experts believe he gained at least some of his knowledge from Brunelleschi and Donatello. He was very well but perhaps a bit messy and disorganized, causing art historian Vasari to tag him with the name he would forever be known as, Masaccio, meaning something like Messy Tom. His real name was Tommaso, with various surnames. Masaccio took a lot of inspiration from contemporary sculptors, whether those of Giovanni Pisano or his friend Donatello. Some of his paintings even reveal areas of a chalk plumb line, something commonly used in sculpting. He also picks up on the graceful draping of fabrics seen in their works, themselves influenced by Greek and Roman sculpture, and translates it to painting. Beyond incorporating Donatello's use of perspective and depiction of fabrics, Masaccio was also revolutionary for the way he implied light in his paintings, using a single light source to give his figures more realistic form and dimension. Giotto integrated a sense of lighting a century earlier, but Masaccio, perhaps through observations of lighting on statues as well as on the human form, used directional light to imply forms. And again like Donatello, he also strove to capture more expression in his figures, something radically new for the time. In 1423, Brunelleschi and Donatello encouraged the young Masaccio, as well as another colleague, Masolino de' Panicale, to take their own trip to Rome and study the antiquities as they had done. Masolino was 17 years older and well-established, having apprenticed with master painter Agnolo Gaddi, and then acting assistant to Lorenzo Goberti for eight years. The two younger painters made the trip, and like the two elder painters, their work was impacted upon return. Masaccio and Masolino would end up collaborating on a number of important commissions, with one of their earliest being the Madonna and Child with Saint Anne. Masolino may have actually been the first to incorporate a vanishing point in a painting, but it's not considered to be the best use or example of single-point linear perspective. That is seen in Masaccio's The Holy Trinity, painted in 1425, and considered his masterwork. It's the first true example of an artist using single-point linear perspective to create believable three-dimensional scenes in two dimension. You can automatically sense the use of geometry, as well as see the inclusion of classical architecture, perhaps taken from one of Brunelleschi's designs, or simply from what he saw on his trip to Rome. Whatever the inspiration, he is one of, if not the, first modern artists to use classical architecture in painting. There's another aspect of the painting that may imply Brunelleschi's influence. Notice the similarity of Masaccio's depiction of Christ as compared to Brunelleschi's carving of the Crucifixion, created about 10 years prior, and hung in the same church where the fresco was painted. But the work that Masaccio and Masolino are most famous for are the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel in the Santa Maria del Carmine Church in Florence. Masolino appears to have started the series, and then brought Masaccio in to assist in early 1425. In the Brancacci Chapel frescoes, Masaccio again depicts Greek and Roman features. He uses directional sunlight, and applies his new method of perspective to a larger scene, a landscape that provides a broader sense of space. Later that same year, Masolino was called away to work on another project in Hungary. After his departure, Masaccio worked on the second floor frescoes, and then left the project himself to work on a commission in Pisa, an altarpiece that would further showcase him as a major influencer. His ingenuity in this piece includes painting the Christ figure eating grapes, a symbol of the Eucharist, a halo that sits dimensionally over his head rather than just behind it, and strong sunlight on his flesh tones. Interestingly, Donatello may have been involved in its creation somehow, even if just as inspiration, because there's record of him being with Masaccio when he picked up a commission payment. Masaccio and Masolino worked well together, and returned to the Brancacci paintings around 1427, where they continued their work for about a year, until they left the work unfinished again to work on a new collaborative commission in Rome, an altarpiece for the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Sadly, Masaccio would not see the completion of either work, as he died while in Rome, possibly of the bubonic plague which was prevalent in Rome around that time. He was only 27 years old. Masolino alone completed the altarpiece. After the younger artist's death, Masolino would revert somewhat to his Gothic roots, and never returned to complete the Brancacci chapel. Although he led such a short life, Masaccio became a well-known artist in his time, and his innovations would have a tremendous impact on the future of painting, inspiring artists like da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and others. Some experts consider him the first true Renaissance painter. According to researcher Tom L. Offenberg, quote, few other painters, if any, have managed to transform the course of painting so decisively in such a short time. Years before Masaccio's death, while he and Masolino were working on the Brancacci chapel frescoes, a young friar who had been placed in the monastery at a young age, became enthralled with their work, and was himself inspired to paint, as he most certainly observed their working process. This artist was Fra Filippo Lippi. Lippi was orphaned when he was very young, and taken in by an aunt until around the age of eight, when she took him to the monastery of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence. It was here that he would be educated and spend the rest of his youth. When he was about 15, Lippi took his sacred vows to become a monk or friar, and would be referred to from that point on as Fra Lippi. It was shortly after this that the monastery hired Masolino and Masaccio to create the decorative frescoes for the Brancacci chapel, which was located on the monastery grounds. How Lippi received his formal artistic training is a mystery, but with two famed artists working directly on location, he must have gained inspiration, if not actual painting instruction, over the years they worked there. What is certain is that he picked up on Masaccio's sense of naturalism, as well as his use of linear perspective and his use of light in painting. Around 1432, Lippi left the monastery to focus solely on painting. He is unaccounted for for about two years, and then spends five years experimenting with different painting concepts, both in Padua and back in Florence. During this time, he painted one of his earliest Madonna paintings, sometimes referred to as the Utah Madonna, and he gained the attention of the powerful Medici family, known for their artistic patronage throughout Tuscany. Soon after, he would paint one of his most important pieces, the Madonna and Child, otherwise known as the Tarquinia Madonna, a painting highly influenced by both Donatello and Masaccio. It's similar to Masaccio's Madonna from the Pisa altarpiece. We can see the influence of Masaccio in the sense of space and perspective, as well as the sculptural appearance of his figures. But notice that Lippi's Madonna has a certain air of sweetness about her. We can see the influence of Donatello in the poses, especially Jesus. And there are subtle influences from what was at the time being seen in Flemish painting. Artists in Florence likely became acquainted with the Northern art movement thanks to Cosimo de' Medici, who commissioned two paintings by Flanders artist Roger van der Weyden. Throughout the 1440s, we see Fra Lippi's individual style begin to emerge. And within 10 years, while living outside of Florence in Prado, he was commissioned to paint what are considered some of his most important works. This, experts suggest, is where his unique, mature style is truly seen. Around this time, he had become acquainted with another artistic friar, Fra Angelico. Angelico and Lippi were almost complete opposites. Fra Angelico was a dominion friar of the San Marco church in Florence, and was a devout man, fully committed to his holy vows. Fra Lippi was a Caramelite monk, who had a reputation for scandal, and who was much less devoted to his vows. The two artist monks were not colleagues, but rather rivals. And yet, it's around this time that we see Angelico's influence on Lippi's work. His figures soften, and he tries out Angelico's portrayal of halos. At one point, Fra Angelico had been given an important commission by the Medici family to paint an altarpiece that would become the most valued piece of art in their collection. Unfortunately, he died before completion in 1455, so the Medici hired Fra Lippi to complete the work. To his credit, Fra Lippi made an effort to adjust his style to coordinate with Angelico's. Today, the piece, The Adoration of the Magi, is considered by some to be the greatest of the Florentine Renaissance paintings. Fra Lippi's less-than-virtuous behavior, however, would eventually catch up with him when, in 1456, he requested the use of a young nun from the convent where he was currently serving as chaplain. He needed a model for a painting he was working on of the Madonna. He and the young nun, Lucrezia, ended up having an affair, and lived together for a time in his home. At some point, Lippi was to be disciplined for his repeated scandalous behavior. But, Cosimo de' Medici intervened, and may have even convinced the Pope to release him from his religious vows, possibly allowing the two lovers to marry. Whether they married or not, in 1457, Lucrezia gave birth to a son who they named Filippino. As we'll see, he would eventually follow in his father's footsteps, and become a painting master in his own right. In spite of the many scandals in his life, Fra Lippi continued to paint and take commissions. His work was still in demand, although his wandering nature sometimes led to problems. It's said that Cosimo once had to trap him in a room in his home so that Lippi would complete his work, to which Lippi eventually escaped, tying bedsheets together and lowering himself out of the bedroom window. In 1467, Lippi moved to Spoleto with his son Filippino, and his lifelong friend and fellow artist, Fra Diamante. Pope Pius II had commissioned him to paint a series of frescoes for the Spoleto Cathedral. Within two years, he had finished much of the work. But, two months before completion, Fra Lippi suddenly died, leaving completion of the project up to Fra Diamante and Filippino. A few years later, Lorenzo de' Medici was so impressed with Filippino's work, in particular, that he hired him to design the marble tomb for the Spoleto Cathedral that would, in the end, hold his father's remains. Fra Filippo Lippi used the naturalism, perspective, and lighting begun by Masaccio, perfecting them as he progressed in his career. So much so, that his paintings of the Madonnas are sometimes referred to as Bourgeois Madonna, because they appear more approachable and more beautiful than they had been portrayed up to that point. As a master artist, Lippi trained many Renaissance artists of his time. But, perhaps the most famous of his pupils was Sandro Botticelli, who apprenticed under Lippi in the early 1460s, around the age of 15, while Lippi worked in Prado. Botticelli studied under Fra Lippi for approximately six years before branching out on his own. But, before we learn about Botticelli's life and career, let's take a moment to discuss the artistic training an artist in the Renaissance era would go through. How did an artist become a master painter at that time? Throughout the 13, 14, and even early 1500s, if somebody wanted to be an artist, they would, first of all, start at a very young age. Twelve to fifteen was common, but there were plenty that were younger, even as young as seven. These youths would take on the role of apprentice to a painting master for a minimum of three years, often more. Their jobs would be to clean the workshop, grind the pigments, mix the gesso, prepare glues, make brushes, and eventually learn to prepare canvases, learn to draw. They'd copy statues and then live models, and they'd learn to mix paints. They were basically helpers for the more menial jobs, but through it they learned important foundational knowledge. They knew their materials, and eventually they learned about basic paint applications as well. After spending a few years in this role, once they fulfilled the master's requirements, they could then move on to become an assistant or journeyman. An assistant would often begin by copying the master's works, working their way up to painting some of the less important areas of a formal workshop commission. A journeyman could travel and assist other masters, or join a local painter's guild and sell their own works of art. But to be considered a master painter and have the opportunity to open their own workshop, they would need to submit a master-level painting to the local painter's guild for their approval. If they passed, they would officially be considered a master painter. It was a very thorough and exhaustive learning process, but the result was a highly competent level of fine art. Anyone who called themselves an artist in those days had to know their stuff. In part two of this series, we'll resume our study, beginning with Sandro Baccicelli.