How Mercenaries Beat Empires

When it comes to the history of mercenaries, the truth is often stranger than fiction. Soldiers-for-hire have been the double-edged sword throughout history, and remain so even in modern warfare. In the medieval world, the stories of the sellswords who took up arms for the kingdoms and empires of Christendom often took fantastical twists and The most curious example of these tales is the Great Catalan Company. Stemming from the warm shores of Eastern Iberia, these dastardly warriors first landed in Sicily and then spent the 14th century fighting for, with, and against Orthodox Byzantines, Catholic Latins, and Islamic Turks alike. It is their tumultuous voyage through the 14th century CE that we will explore today. Welcome to our video on the history and misadventures of the Great Catalan Company, allies of the Byzantines, enemies of the Burgundians, and conquerors of Athens. This video is sponsored by YOU! Unfortunately, the YouTube environment is not great right now, with the algorithm being friendlier to drama and react channels and YouTube being permissive of AI slop. We don't do drama and we don't do AI, but thanks to our members and patrons, our channel continues to make three public videos per week, with the team intact and going strong. In recognition of their generosity and contributions, members and patrons receive two additional exclusive videos each week and access many other perks. Join them to watch more than 250 exclusive videos covering every era of history by pressing the JOIN button under the video or the links in the description and Before we tell the story of the Catalan Company, we must understand the cultural and geopolitical context of the Mediterranean in which they operated. The origins of the Company come from Catalonia in the eastern shores of Iberia. The crown that ruled modern-day Catalonia was that of Aragon, a union of the Principality of Catalonia and the Kingdom of Aragon. The Aragonese crown was a maritime powerhouse that possessed the third-largest fleet in Europe at the time, with which it established control over parts of modern-day Italy. During the War of the Sicilian Vespers from 1282 to 1302 CE, the Royal House of Aragon established control over the island of Sicily as the Kingdom of Trinacria, dislodging the previous Norman state established there. Moving on to the eastern Mediterranean, we find an even more complicated geopolitical landscape. The lands of modern-day Greece were still bearing the consequences of the Latin sack of Constantinople and the dismantling of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1204 CE. Various Catholic states had emerged there, such as the Duchy of Athens, often ruled by Latin-speaking elites oppressing the local Greek and Albanian Eastern Orthodox peoples. The reconquest of Constantinople by the Byzantine Kingdom of Nicaea in 1261 CE had revived the Eastern Roman Empire, but this resuscitated state was unable to prevent the various Turkic Bylics of Anatolia from eating away at its territories in Asia Minor. The Byzantines often used mercenaries to supplement their forces against the Turks. This is where the Catalan Company came in. But before we discuss their history, let us first provide an overview on how they fought. The Catalan Company was composed predominantly of light infantry forces, called the Almagovars. Through versatile, asymmetrical light infantry tactics, the Catalans often managed to defeat opposing forces which far outnumbered them. The unique style of the Almagovars stemmed from their participation in the Reconquista against the Islamic powers of Iberia. In fact, the name Almagovar is itself of Arabic origin. In terms of equipment, they carried two javelins and swords, as well as spears and their own shields. Their light equipment enabled their shock and awe tactics, making them even more effective. The Catalans were also very good at psychological warfare, terrorizing their enemies, striking flint against their swords to create vivid sparks. They accompanied this show with yells like, light iron, it's time to kill. The combination of skilled warfare tactics and utterly insane personas made the Catalan Company a force to be reckoned with. Our story begins in 1302 CE, shortly after the War of the Sicilian Vespers ended. The Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople, Andronikos II, was in dire need of military expertise. The Battle of Baphaios between the Byzantines and a certain Osman I Bey had ended in a complete Byzantine defeat and a conquest of castles near the city of Bursa. Given that the Eastern Romans were in a precarious situation between Latin, Turkic and Slavic kingdoms on all sides of their geographic terrain, Andronikos required all the personnel he could get. In Sicily, many mercenaries were newly unemployed after the war ended. These light infantry troops, known as Almogovars, were organized into the so-called Catalan Company, led by the nobleman Roger de Flore. Roger was of Sicilian extraction and had spent time as a pirate in his youth. The consolidation of the various Aragonese mercenary bands under his command was carried out by the Sicilian nobility in order to keep the sellswords in check and prevent them from engaging in the typical mercenary pursuit of rampaging the countryside upon losing employment. With no wars left to fight in Sicily, Roger went to Constantinople and offered his services to Emperor Andronikos. With the raiders of the Turkic Beyliks encroaching ever closer on his capital, the Byzantine Emperor agreed to hire the Catalan Company. The force of Almogovars, estimated at anywhere from 1,000 to 8,000 men by various sources, left Sicily and arrived in Constantinople in 1303 CE. The arrival of the Catalans was a relief for Andronikos, who solidified his alliance with the mercenary captain by marrying Roger de Flore to his niece, Princess Maria Assanina. Roger was named Megas Dux, a rank usually indicating a naval commander, but in this case designating him as an honorary general. This quick rise to fame irritated another Latin force in Constantinople, the Genoese. Conflict between the two soon erupted in the city, and the so-called Genoese Massacre of 1303 CE ended in the deaths of 3,000 Genoese. In the aftermath of this bloodletting, Andronikos was eager to get these violent Iberians out of his capital and immediately put the company to work. The force, composed of Catalans, Sicilians, Franks, and other Latin peoples, distinguished itself massively. Not long after his deployment, Roger de Flore achieved an important victory in Caetacus against the Karacid Turkic Bylics. His company also plundered the countryside along the way, which made many Byzantine locals resent them. Andronikos, happy with this victory, sent Roger de Flore to free the region of Philadelphia to the south. The Catalans demonstrated their military prowess by lifting the siege of Philadelphia and defeating the Turks at the Battle of Aulax. They then moved to the city of Magnesia and took it over, using it as a jumping point to attack Turkic navies. Throughout 1303 and 1304, the company, under their big boss, fought in various battles across Asia Minor, amassing wealth, committing atrocities, and achieving fame for their military capabilities in battles such The end of 1304 CE brought to light the contradictions of the Catalan company's presence in Anatolia. Despite being there to ostensibly protect Byzantine domains, the company routinely pillaged Byzantine towns and villages, and the Greek locals had grown tired of the Almagovars after two years of their presence in their realm, with some contemporary sources accusing them of being even worse than the Turks. In addition, the city of Magnesia had revolted against the Catalans, prompting them to besiege it. Eager to avoid chaos in Asia Minor, Emperor Andronikos convinced the Catalans to lift the siege and go to Thrace to fight on the pro-Byzantine side of a civil war in the Bulgarian Empire. The dissatisfaction of the Eastern Romans continued even after the Catalans left Asia Minor, and Andronikos' son, Michael IX Palaiologos, opted for drastic measures. On April 30th, 1305 CE, the company entered Adrianople to join in an imperial banquet. Upon arriving, however, they were ambushed by Alan mercenaries hired by the new emperor. Roger perished in the fight, alongside 100 of his cavalry and up to 1,000 of his infantry. At the same time, the Greeks in Constantinople rose up and rampaged through Catalan buildings, massacring the mercenaries who had pillaged their territory two years prior. The enraged and vengeful Catalan survivors escaped to Gallipoli, and from there began raiding across Macedonia and Thrace. The company's remnants in Gallipoli were surrounded by Byzantine and Alan mercenary groups and besieged. The new leader of these soldiers-without-borders, Berenguer d'Antenza, attempted a naval raid on Constantinople, but was deceived and captured by Genoese soldiers who had sided with the Byzantines. The remnants of this naval raid escaped and returned to Gallipoli. They would eventually fight and defeat the Byzantines in the Battle of Apros in 1305 CE, while gaining many allies among the Turkic mercenaries in the Byzantine army who defected to their side. After that, the Catalans used Gallipoli as their base and raided all over Thrace for the next two years. By 1307 CE, news arrived that the Aragonese king of Sicily, Frederick III, had sent his relative Ferdinand of Majorca to take over the company's reigns. The connections between Aragonese Sicily and the company remained strong because many leaders held noble status there, and so many accepted the new big boss. However, this succession in leadership was opposed by the company's seneschal, the nobleman Bernard de Roquefort. Bernard had only joined in 1304 CE after being sort of forced out of Sicily, and after some violent confrontations, Bernard emerged as the leader. Ferdinand left for Majorca, as did the old administrator of the company, Roman Muntana, whose chronicle is our main source for the Catalan Brotherhood's early escapades. Bernard settled the company in the Cassandria Peninsula in Chalkidiki, then immediately re-initiated raids in northern Greece. After pillaging the sacred Eastern Orthodox monasteries on Mount Athos, he contacted the king of the House of Capet in France, Charles of Valois, about rebuilding the defunct Latin state of the Duchy of Thessalonica, which had existed only briefly after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. While he was under contract to help Charles militarily, he secretly hoped to become ruler of the Duchy himself. Eventually, the company descended into further strife, and Bernard's attempts failed. He then tried to marry into the family of Guy II, Duke of Athens, who was from the French region of Burgundy. However, trouble was brewing from within the ranks of the company. Bernard was both an absolutist commander of the company, and also one who got into conflicts with many other company generals. The rank and file eventually grew tired of his antics and deposed him in 1309 CE. The company's show, however, had to go on. The new company leader, Roger de Slot, was hired by the Duke of Athens, Walter V of Brienne, who was facing internal turmoil. Roger purged the Duke's enemies in 1311 CE, only to find that the pay he was promised was nowhere to be found. He thus rose up against the Duke and killed him during the Battle of Halmyros in 1311 CE. After that, the company moved into Athens and took over the duchy. As soon as he got into power, however, Roger found himself under threat from Frankish forces in Morea and Venetian forces in Negroponte. These forces were also backed by the Popes of Avignon, who considered the Catalans to be barbarous raiders. Thus, to ensure he had backing against any papal incursions on Athens, Roger brokered a deal with Aragonese Sicily. King Frederick II of Sicily made his five-year-old son, Manfred, Duke of Athens. Roger was given estates in Salona in Croatia and decided to retire there instead of being a ruler. While the duchy was now officially part of the Aragonese Sicilian crown, in reality, it was the company that ruled the city. The Sicilian rulers simply sent a vicar general to rule there as viceroy. The first man to take the role was Berenguer Estanyol, who solidified control over Athens and Thebes and expanded Catalan control there. Manfred died in 1317 CE and his brother William V took over the dukedom. He sent his half-brother, Alfonso Frederick, to Greece as vicar general. During this time, the widow of Walter, Jeanne de Châtillon, was asking the papacy to restore the duchy to her son and they tried to acquiesce. In 1318 CE, the Pope asked Venice to oust the Catalans. However, Alfonso had managed to expand the duchy well into Thessaly and to secure alliances with Turkic Bylics in the Aegean. In light of these successful conquests, the Venetians concluded a treaty with the Catalans, thereby securing their control over Athens. The company was now the undisputed aristocracy of Athens, as well as in the duchy of Neopatras in Sicily, making Catalan one of its official languages. Alfonso organised a deal with the Catalan company in 1321, in which their privileges were assured in the duchy. The Customs of Barcelona, a legal code from Aragon proper, became the law of the land, and Catholic supremacy was assured by restricting Catalan status to the nobles and banning conversion to orthodoxy to children of Catholic-Orthodox marriages. Alfonso spent the 1320s running his newly-conquered territories in Greece. He was replaced in 1330 CE by Odo de Novell, who was then immediately replaced by Nicholas Lancia, who helped the Venetians fight against Turkic pirates in the Aegean, with whom the Catalans had previously been allies. The alliances of the Catalan company were pragmatic rather than based on faith or ideology. He also faced a crusade sponsored by the papacy and led by the Duke of Brienne, Walter VI, in 1331 CE. The Duke of Brienne tried, unsuccessfully, to retake his family's possessions, but only managed to take small fiefdoms in Lefkas and Vonitsa. In Athens itself, the historical record becomes patchy. We know that Lancia was replaced in 1335, but we know nothing about the vicar's general until the coming of Raymond Bernardi in 1354 CE. William was succeeded by John I in 1338 CE, but he does not seem to have been in Athens at any point during his ten-year reign. The same can be said of his successor, Frederick III, who ruled until 1355 CE, when Raymond was there. At some point in the 1340s CE, Emperor Stefan Dusan of Serbia conquered Thessaly, taking Neopatra from the Catalans. Frederick IV took over in 1355 CE from his predecessor, and faced a crisis when the local Catalan Nivelle family sought to expand its influence in the duchy through its hereditary position as Marshals. His vicar general, James Fabrique, managed to balance ducal and Nivelle interests, but our sources become patchier by the 1360s. Various vicars general appear in the record, some often overlapping with each other, suggesting some internal strife. For instance, Gonzalo Jimenez of Arenos appears in both 1359 and 1363 CE in the role, but true power lay with a certain Roger de Luria, who fought a war with the Venetians at Negroponte over property disputes of some nobles. In fact, during the two Gonzalo reigns, his intercessor, Matthew of Moncada, did not even dare to go to Greece due to the apparent inter-nobility chaos there. After 1366 CE, Roger was made de jure vicar general, who ruled until 1370 CE. Even so, this stabilizing measure by Frederick IV was not enough to stem the loss of power to Florentine military interests. The instability of the region would only grow as Aragon shifted its political priorities. The 1370 CE marked the beginning of the end of Catalan domination of the Duchy of Athens. The political turmoil in the region continued, as the vicar general, Matthew of Peralta, was replaced in 1374 CE by Louis Fadrique. Louis was the ruler of Siderocastrum in Athens, but was deprived of his rights by 1367 CE by Roger de Luria. He assumed the generalship after Florentine adventurers took over the city of Megara near Athens. Louis used his office for family rivalries against his uncle Boniface, who had taken control of the Athenian estates of his father James. He also became involved in the affairs of Aragon, for after the death of Frederick IV, he helped install Peter IV on the throne in 1379 CE, in place of Frederick's daughter Maria. However, the Florentines were not going to sit idly by while the Catalan territories were in chaos. They thus called upon another mercenary band, the Navarrese Company. These soldiers of fortune from Navarre and Gascon invaded Boetia in 1379 CE and took over the co-capital of Thebes. Louis was officially replaced by the absentee Philippe d'Almont in 1379 CE, though in reality, various other officials were in control on the ground. The Navarrese, however, were not to be dissuaded. Over the 1380s CE, the Duchy of Athens was eaten away by Florentine and Navarrese soldiers, until 1388 CE. In that fateful year, the Florentines finally took over Athens, ending the Catalan nobility's control over the city. The Catalan-run parts of Neopatras remained partially under their control until 1390 CE, when they were conquered as well. The Duchy of Athens continued for a few more decades, first under the Florentines, then under the Venetians, and finally under the Byzantine Palaiologoi dynasty. In 1456 CE, the Ottomans took over the city, bringing it under the rule of the Sublime Porte. The title of Dukes remained in Sicilian, and eventually in Spanish royal titles. The memory of the Catalans remained strong in the region of Greece, where Catalan was used as an insult for someone who was particularly fight-prone until the 20th century. The Catalan Company, both militarily brilliant and politically ruthless, had left its mark on both shores of the same Aegean Sea. By the 1380s, the erstwhile strength of the Great Catalan Company had all but vanished when the Navarrese Company took over the duchies of Athens and Neopatras. These diamond dogs of war, who had fought against the Seleucs and taken over Athens, were now another fantastical tale, recorded by the Mountaineer Chronicle. Their mark on history, however, was irreplaceable. The Catalan Company's story is one of betrayal and adventure, where enemies became friends and bosses became rivals. It is also a story forged in blood and iron on the rocky shores of the Aegean. When one walks the streets of Barcelona, Paterno or Athens, they are often unaware that Catalan was once spoken in all three cities. This mellifluous language was once spoken by adventurers and conquerors. The multi-ethnic Catalan Company that spoke it once changed the history of the Aegean forever. More videos on the soldiers of the medieval world are on the way, so make sure you're subscribed and have pressed the bell button to see them. Please consider liking, subscribing, commenting and sharing, it helps immensely. Recently, we've started releasing weekly Patreon and YouTube member exclusive content. Consider joining their ranks via the link in the description or the button under the video. To watch these weekly videos, learn about our schedule, get early access to our videos, access our private Discord and much more. This is the Kings and Generals channel, and we'll catch you on the next one.