An Lushan Rebellion: The War That Almost Destroyed the Tang Empire

The murderous atmosphere that had hung over Fanyang for more than half a year finally solidified into suffocating fear. On that day, He Tianian led a small unit and tricked the gate of Taiyuan into opening. A week later, urgent reports from Taiyuan quickly reached Daiming Palace. After analysis, the court concluded that the next target of the three rebel armies was Chang'an. Yet the August ruler of the Great Tang shook his grey head and insisted that this was impossible, absolutely impossible. Meanwhile, the rebel Iron Cavalry was already on its rapid assault. The An Lushan Rebellion, long in the making, officially erupted. The Vanguard Han army consisted of 8,000 elite soldiers of the Yellow Huohe Corps, personally commanded by An Lushan, marching directly to strike Luoyang. This audacious plan carried enticing prospects. Luoyang was the vital stronghold in the east of the empire, the key link from Hebei and Jiangnan to Chang'an. Seizing it would be like severing the great artery of the Tang, and capturing the heart of the empire, Chang'an, would only be a matter of time. On November 15, urgent memorials poured into Daiming Palace like snow, yet Yang Guozhong calmly declared that the rebellion was nothing but An Lushan's farce. Within no more than 10 days, he said, An's head would be offered in Chang'an. Emperor Xuanzong was reassured and ordered troops to be recruited in Luoyang and Heidong to organize defenses. Only a week later did Xuanzong return from Huaqing Pool to Chang'an. The aging emperor, long evading reality, finally awoke and appointed Guo Ziyi, who was then in mourning, as military governor of Shuofang, to intercept An Lushan from the north. At the same time, he ordered the high marshal Gao Xianji and Feng Changqing to build the first and second defensive lines at Shanzhou. But when the two renowned generals arrived, they were stunned. Though they had achieved many victories on the frontier, they never imagined the central troops had decayed to the point where armor could not even be worn properly. Tens of thousands were hastily recruited, mostly peasants and local sons, who in physical strength were considered no weaker than the imperial troops. Confidence is a virtue, yet the confidence of the Tang court elite was clearly excessive. On December 2, An Lushan's vanguard tied broken boats and rotten wood with rough ropes to make a temporary pontoon bridge across the river. Ironically, after one night, the river froze into jagged ice, and the rebels surged across like a tide, easily seizing the ancient Yellow River crossing at Yanjin, in today's Henan. Zhang Jieran, the military governor of Henan, hurried to climb the walls of Qianliu, but the soldiers, upon seeing the massive rebel force approaching, panicked and could not fight. The first line of defense collapsed with ease. After this initial defeat, the Tang court at last regretted its earlier complacency. To raise morale, Emperor Xuanzong proclaimed he would personally lead the army, ordering the forces to gather at Chang'an within 20 days. He also decreed the execution of An Qingsu, son of An Lushan, as a counterblow. When An Lushan heard his son had been killed, he flew into a rage and ordered the massacre of tens of thousands of surrendered captives. This act made the rebels even more bloodthirsty, their fighting spirit unstoppable. They swept aside the imperial troops defending Xinjiang, where Tang soldiers, hearing the rebel war drums, leapt from the city walls and fled. An Lushan pressed forward, preparing to strike the final line of defense for Luoyang, Hulao Pass. That majestic gate, foundation of the Tang dynasty and still bearing the marks of Emperor Taizong's glory, now awaited the coming storm. The defenders swore to hold fast, yet the Tang army collapsed in an instant. Hulao Pass fell, and the two sides fought bitterly again at Xiyuan. The Tang forces were defeated and withdrew to defend multiple Luoyang gates. Feng Changqing led the Tang army inside the city to resist to the death. At the Jiuding post, they even clashed with the rebels, but in the end could not withstand the ferocious assault. He had no choice but to break through a collapsed section of the western imperial wall and lead the remnants desperately toward Shanzhou, where Gao Shanzi was stationed. From then on, the two defensive lines the empire had painstakingly built collapsed completely under successive Tang defeats, leaving only the final defense at the perilous Tong Pass. When Feng Changqing reached Shanzhou, the local governor had already fled with the people. Both he and Gao Shanzi realized the rebels were advancing with unstoppable momentum, and Tong Pass was left empty without troops. Once Tong Pass fell, Chang'an would be in mortal danger. They immediately decided to gather all their soldiers and retreat swiftly to Tong Pass, establishing the last defense to protect the heart of the Tang. The fall of Luoyang was reported to Chang'an, throwing Emperor Xuanzong into shock. The civil and military officials of the court plunged into panic. In just over 30 days, and Lu Shan's cavalry had seized Henan, Hebei, Hongnong, Jiayin, Bordeaux, and many other places that surrendered quickly, showing that the rebels met virtually no real resistance. By now, their army was pressing against Tong Pass. Xuanzong grew furious, resembling Wu Zetian in her late years of despair, completely losing judgment. He ordered Bian Lingcheng to Tong Pass to punish Feng Changqing and Gao Shanzi. Xuanzong did not read any of the three memorials Feng Changqing had submitted, but trusted the slanders of the eunuch Bian Lingcheng, condemning Feng Changqing and Gao Shanzi. Yet at this moment, the rebels halted their advance, for flames had been kindled in their After the fall of Luoyang, the three defenders who had resisted desperately, Liu Shaocheng and two others, were all beheaded. On December 17, the rebels carried their heads throughout Hebei to display their power. But when this force reached Pingyuan Prefecture, the Tang envoy who had been missing for many days suddenly appeared and immediately executed the It turned out that Yan Zhenqing in Pingyuan had long hidden himself within enemy territory. Once he launched the resistance, the surrounding prefectures quickly responded and a massive Hebei uprising erupted, like a blade stabbing straight into the heart of Great Yan. Moreover, Changshan, guarded by the Yan brothers, was the crucial point connecting Fanyang and Luoyang. Yang Gaoqing seized the opportunity when He Tianyan returned to Fanyang to recruit troops. Passing by Changshan, he was captured by spies. To save his life, He Tianyan betrayed all the vital secrets of Great Yan. The main Yan army was besieging Raoyang, while Hebei's defenses were extremely weak. To change the banners atop the city walls would not be difficult. Thus, Yang Gaoqing spread the message that the brothers were still alive, only scattered, that Guo Ziyi had already led troops to Fanyang, that Pingyuan had been secured by his arrangements, and that all Hebei brothers needed to do was rise together to overthrow Yan. This news appeared like a call for uprising, but in reality the Tang army had not yet crossed the Yellow River. Still, the Yan troops panicked, immediately abandoning their siege of Raoyang. Seventeen prefectures in Hebei all raised the Tang banner, this act undoubtedly pinned down on Lushan's forces. To expand the victory, Yang Gaoqing plotted to win over Jie Xun, the defender of Fanyang in the rebel rear. Success would sever the supply lines of the Yan main force and the suppression of the An Lushan rebellion would be within reach, but Yang Gaoqing became too hasty. In secret talks with Jie Xun, he inadvertently leaked word and counterintelligence quickly carried the news to the rebel front. An Lushan, shocked and furious, at once ordered the main Yan force, which had just left Luoyang and was preparing to assault Tongpass, to turn back in haste and split their forces to crush the rear threat in Hebei. At this time, the supreme commander of the Yan army in Hebei was Xi Saiming. He personally led 20,000 iron cavalry to besiege Changshan. The situation was dire. Yang Gaoqing sent men to break through the encirclement at the cost of their lives, dispatching envoys to Taiyuan for aid. Taiyuan lay more than 400 li from Chang'an, and if light cavalry were dispatched, they could arrive in three days. Yet Wang Chengye, governor of Taiyuan, sent not a single soldier, even secretly wishing the resistance would soon perish. This was not out of desire to submit to the rebels, but from selfish motives. Earlier, Wang had stolen the credit of the Yan brothers in resisting the enemy to gain rewards. If Yang Gaoqing survived, his deceit would be exposed. Thus, he heartlessly watched Changshan fall into peril, refusing to send relief. On January 8, Yang Gaoqing was escorted by the rebels to Luoyang. Amid An Lushan's curses, he was executed at Linchi. From then, the great Hebei resistance declined, with only a few core forces persevering. When the Yan army threw all its strength into besieging Raoyang, intelligence arrived that a Tang force was rapidly advancing into Hebei. Qi Saiming dismissed it with contempt, believing the Tang had backward weapons and weak combat power, no match for him. But he did not know that the Tang army was commanded by Li Guangbi. Upon hearing that Li Guangbi's main force was approaching, the people of Changshan, who had recently raised the Yan banner, once again rose in rebellion, seizing the Yan governor An Suyi. Li Guangbi treated the prisoners with kindness, moved, and Suyi voluntarily surrendered. In battle, the delaying tactics proved effective. Whenever the Yan forces attacked, the Tang closed the gates tight and defended, then seized moments of carelessness to shoot arrows and harass, buying precious time. After all, though the Yan cavalry was powerful, they possessed almost no proper siege equipment. Li Guangbi greatly approved of this strategy and immediately urged the strengthening of fortifications at Changshan. As they prepared for battle, Qi Saiming deployed 20,000 iron cavalry to the east of the city. Li Guangbi formed 5,000 infantry into a square, waiting until the Yan cavalry charged. Then, 500 elite archers on the city walls first loosed volleys of swordfish arrows. The remaining archers were divided into four units, releasing a continuous rain of arrows. The Yan forces could not respond and had to retreat north 170 li. At the same time, locals reported to the Tang that the Yan army was concentrating on besieging Raoyang to reinforce Qi Saiming. Li Guangbi immediately decided to pursue, leading Tang troops in relentless pursuit and drawing the enemy into the vast sea of people's war. The Yan forces quickly collapsed amid the masses. Hebei's prefectures once more raised the banner of resistance. Yet the Tang's regular forces were limited and both sides stalemated for more than 40 days. Only in early April 756 did Qi Saiming finally resolve to exploit his cavalry advantage, harassing Tang supply convoys without cease and completely cutting off Changshan's line of provisions. In this desperate hour, Li Guangbi ordered the transport corps to carry all their weapons, guarding themselves as they hauled grain, while urgently calling for reinforcements. Before long, Guo Ziyi led 100,000 Tang troops to Changshan. This army maintained strict discipline and never harmed the people. Any soldier who took even a needle or a thread from the common folk was severely punished and all seized goods were returned. From that point, the military situation in Hebei was completely reversed. Yet surprises always arose at critical moments. Just as the Tang army was about to annihilate Qi Saiming, the 100,000 troops fell into a food crisis and had no choice but to lift the siege. On the retreat, the Tang repelled repeated pursuers from the Yan army, but ultimately, lacking provisions, they could not continue the campaign. This became known as the Battle of Jumen. In May of that year, Guo Ziyi's great army shifted tactics. By day, they defended the strongholds, while at night, they repeatedly sent cavalry to raid the Yan forces in their sleep. On the 29th, when the decisive battle came, the Yan troops, already exhausted by attrition, were instantly broken by the Tang assault. Qi Saiming's horse was shot dead in battle, his helmet knocked off by Tang sharpshooters, and in the chaos, he even lost a boot. With hair disheveled and utterly bedraggled, he fled in disgrace. At this moment, communication between Fanyang and Luoyang had been completely severed by Tang forces. The Yan garrison in Luoyang received not even family letters, and the city was filled with the atmosphere of defeat. En Lushan, consumed with regret, summoned his concubines Gao Shang and Yan Zhuang, and in front of them, he cursed bitterly, Thus, strategically, the situation was now clear. Guo Ziyi and Li Guangbi had cut the line between Luoyang and Fanyang, and the next step could well be the full recovery of Hebei. Yet, economically, the Tang army was near collapse, at the very brink. The reason Guo Ziyi's massive army repeatedly halted its advance was precisely the shortage of grain. As Guo Ziyi's forces won victory after victory, the Tang court elite, who at first had panicked, gradually regained confidence and began to scheme about recovering Luoyang. At this time, Geshu Han, commander at Tong Pass, knew that holding firm behind the pass was the wisest strategy, but he was repeatedly suppressed by Yang Guozhong. To force Geshu Han to march out, Yang Guozhong sent a force to the rear of Tong Pass, nominally as reinforcements, but in truth as overseers. The conflict between the two men thus exploded, impossible to reconcile. Meanwhile, Li Guangbi from Hebei also memorialized Emperor Xuanzong, advising that the army should fortify positions, stabilize, and never advance rashly. But an emperor ruling a vast empire inevitably heard many conflicting voices. The civil officials aligned with Yang Guozhong strongly urged Xuanzong to order an advance, advocating that forces strike from the south to open the route to Luoyang and then coordinate with the Shuofang army. In the end, Xuanzong chose the council he wished to believe. Despite Li Guangbi's prudent plan being obviously more reliable, those corrupt officials could not understand. The initial strategic aim of the Yang cavalry had been to ride south and seize Luoyang. For this city was the transportation hub of the Tang Empire. Controlling Luoyang meant controlling Hebei and the grain shipments from Jiangnan to Chang'an. One must know, Chang'an's food supply always depended on Luoyang. If that link were severed, the famine of 733 inches Chang'an could recur. On the surface, the Shuofang army triumphed in glory, but in truth they had reached their limit. Some might ask, did the Tang not have reserve granaries? In fact, the repeated halts in Guo Ziyi's advance, forced to collect grain locally in Hebei, revealed that provisions had long flowed into others' private pockets. Therefore, Yan's occupation of Luoyang was like a fierce tiger gripping the throat of Tang. Later, the Gao clan submitted the Record of Tongpa's Defeat, which wrote, when the three armies rose in rebellion, only five or six battalions remained. Under the scorching sun they ate coarse rice, and even that was not enough. How could they fight bravely? If the soldiers could not even eat, how could they be expected to fight with spirit? At that time it was June, and the Tang's summer grain taxes were not collected until June. This meant, the Tang central army had reached utter desperation. To remain at Tongpa's was to starve to death, but to march out was to die in battle. Ironically, intelligence reported that Yan vanguard opposite consisted entirely of the old, weak, and sick. More ironic still, it was these very men, once corrupt officials who had hollowed out the Tang foundation, who now forced the army to march out. In such bitter necessity, Emperor Xuanzong finally ordered the army to leave the pass. 180,000 Tang soldiers, full of grand momentum, marched from Tongpa's, and three days later arrived at a place called Xiyuan. Yet this was no open plain. To the north lay the Yellow River, to the south Mount Xiao, and between them only a narrow path stretching 70 lai. As the Tang army reached the mouth of this narrow pass, they encountered the rebels. Behind this lay a dreadful truth. At the very entrance of the 70 lai path, an ambush was already set. It was like passing a gate, where enemies lurked at every step, meaning that each of the 69 lai ahead held even fiercer foes. Geshu Han had reached the end of his road, and could only grit his teeth in advance. He arranged 50,000 troops as the vanguard, 100,000 as reserves, and personally led 30,000 to a high point to oversee and command. Yet the Yan formation ahead appeared chaotic. Clustered in threes, grouped in tens, even placing soldiers holding whetstones behind the ranks. To Tang eyes, this seemed like ignorance of military art, and so they grew careless. At that moment, Kui Qianyu stood on a small hill overlooking the Tang army, as they're watching prey walk willingly into the tiger's mouth. The Yan troops feigned panic, covering their heads and fleeing, luring the Tang vanguard into the ambush. At once, countless great boulders, long prepared, rolled down from both sides, throwing the Tang ranks into chaos. Men pushed and crushed one another, some even killing comrades in desperation to live. When the Tang attempted to break out with chariots, the Yan had already sealed the exits. An eastern wind blew, and thick smoke rose from fires, plunging the Tang further into disorder. Kui Qianyu seized the chance, and sent elite cavalry around Mount Xiao to strike from behind. The Tang vanguard collapsed instantly, dragging the rear army into total root. Soldiers fled in every direction, countless dying. Of 180,000 Tang troops, only 8,000 escaped west of the pass with Geshu Han. By then, anger boiled among the soldiers, who cursed their commanders. Some cried out, Back to Chang'an! Back to Chang'an! Have you forgotten the fate of Gao Xianzi and Feng Changqing? With that, they bound Geshu Han and delivered him to the Yan. Surrendering, Tongpass fell, and the gates of Chang'an stood wide open. Everywhere, the military governors abandoned their posts and fled. On the very day of the disaster at Tongpass, Emperor Xuanzong In his heart, he already guessed the worst, but still clung to hope, sending 3,000 more troops to hold Tongpass, praying for a miracle. From the moment the army set out, Xuanzong climbed high towers again and again, gazing east to the horizon, hoping to see the signal fire of safety. But that flame of hope never rose. At last, Xuanzong hastily summoned 3,000 guards and secretly prepared the retreat to Shu. Though scarcely a tenth of the officials came to court that day, Xuanzong still ascended Qinzheng Tower to reassure the people of Chang'an, proclaiming for the third time that he would personally lead the campaign. Yet turning to his close attendants, he whispered that it was but an act, only to calm the people. In truth, the Emperor was already preparing to flee. Chang'an at that time was like the titanic adrift upon the ice, out of control. Those who fled first were not women or children, but the officials of the court. Only the closest kin of the imperial household had the right to join the escape. Consorts, princesses, and imperial grandchildren in the Taiji Palace were abandoned without mercy. Amid the chaos, many did not even manage to carry the treasury's wealth, only praying the rebels would not massacre the city. When the people and ministers realized the Emperor had fled, the entire city fell into turmoil. Some risked their lives to escape, others seized the chance to plunder the storehouses. As for the keepers of Chang'an, Cui Qianyu and Bian Lingcheng, the very eunuch who had framed Feng Chongqing and Gao Xianji, they had already sent their sons with letters of surrender to An Lushan's court in Luoyang. All this chaos drove the contradictions of the Tang Dynasty to the brink of explosion.