Age of Discovery - Afonso de Albuquerque - Part 5: A Perilous Homecoming

It was in late November of 1511 that the mighty Frol de la Mar made her way northwest through the Strait of Malacca. The giant cargo hold of the 400-ton carrack was filled to the brim with an immense treasure of spice and plunder, which was earmarked to be delivered to the King of Portugal. Afonso de Albuquerque, the appointed Portuguese governor of India and his men, knew that they had won a great victory. The city of Malacca was now part of the empire and Portugal not only had control over the strait that bore its name, but a rich, valuable city which would serve as a base for further expansion into the Pacific Ocean. Spirits were high amongst all the crews of the ships. They knew that if they made it back to Lisbon they'd be richer than their wildest dreams. However, despite the euphoric mood, danger was fast approaching. As the sun set on that late November day of 1511, the skies grew dark and a massive storm quickly descended on the fleet. Under torrents of heavy rain and fast winds, the Frol de la Mar immediately began to flounder. Wooden boards that were riddled with toredo worms quickly came apart and the enormous weight of the treasure made the ship nearly unmaneuverable in the high seas. Men ran to pump out as much water as they could but they knew it was a losing battle as continuous waves slammed into the hull of the ship. Looking on from the bridge, Afonso witnessed a giant wave crash into the forecastle of his vessel, sweeping away 16 men at once. The sailors of his fleet, seeing the flagship being so extensively battered, began to panic. Cohesion amongst all the crews began to break down. One vessel, the M.Obregas, which was now in the lead, broke formation with the intent to save itself. Several of the other ships witnessing this began to follow suit. Meanwhile, the crew of a captured Javanese junk took advantage of the situation. They mutinied against their Portuguese officers and slaughtered them. The junk then quickly left the fleet behind, escaping any way it could. Its hold was filled with the spoils of war. In the darkness of the early morning, only a few ships remained with Albuquerque but they were all in major trouble. Between the raging sea and the cyclone-strength winds, the fleet was being pushed ever closer to the Sumatran coast. The Frol de la Mar at this point had drifted into the shoals, began to tear into the keel. Of all the remaining vessels, it was only the Trinidad that was now in any position to help, her captain seeing the stricken flagship change course to come in to assist. During that time, Afonso kept his men as disciplined as he could, but when another wave slammed in and tore off the rudder, he knew it was time to abandon ship. He ordered his men to cut down all the masts and fashion them into a raft. With a rope that was tied around his waist, he made his way back and forth, evacuating as many men as he could. Some listened to him and boarded the raft with only the clothes on their back. Others, however, went to go and gather up valuables. Most of them were never seen again. Albuquerque finally boarded the lifeboat himself, but as he left, he looked back. He watched as the Frol de la Mar groaned under the stress of the storm and then broke in two. The aft portion sank immediately, the forward part struck straight up, and in a last defiant stand, slowly made its way beneath the waves. Afonso and his men would have to remain on the raft for hours, clinging desperately for life. It wasn't until the sun came up and the winds began to die down that they were spotted by the Trinidad and eventually rescued. History would record that on November 20th in the year 1511, the Frol de la Mar was destroyed. The loss of the flagship was an immense blow to Portugal. Of a crew of over 500 experienced men, less than 100 made it out alive. All of the records and maps and information that the Portuguese had obtained were now gone. The massive fortune that was worthy of a king sunk to the bottom of that Sumatran shoal. Albuquerque would later claim that it was worth more than all the wealth of India. For those of you who are curious, the current estimated value of that treasure is over 2.6 billion and it goes without saying that it lies there to this day. It was not until the spring of 1512 that Afonso de Albuquerque made it back to India. He arrived at Cochin, but what he saw in his homecoming was simply appalling. The governor had made the conquest of the Indian Ocean his life's work. On his departure to the east, he had left the nascent Portuguese empire in a great position. But now the situation had severely deteriorated. His firm and visionary leadership had been replaced by ineptitude, greed and corruption. His commanders squabbled amongst themselves for personal gain. His soldiers had lost their military edge and the fleet was in disarray. Even his prized city of Goa was now under siege by the Sultan of Bijapur who had come back with another massive army. What's even worse, Afonso's campaign in Malacca had lasted so long that many thought he was dead. These men were quick to betray Albuquerque in his absence. The governor of India now had to deal with men who had ascended to strong positions and now firmly opposed him. And perhaps even more underhanded, these same men had actively worked hard to undermine Albuquerque's reputation with the king. Manuel I now viewed Afonso with contempt. Royal letters of praise from the sovereign had become letters of condemnation. Albuquerque had a huge target on his back. He was the man who everyone, including the king of Portugal, now blamed. And of course, the loss of the Frodo Lamar only complicated the situation. For the governor of India, it was now time to get back to work. First and foremost, he began a series of letters to his king. His devotion and his loyalty to his sovereign, after all, were his most valuable possessions. It was what he lived for. In one letter, out of many, he would air his frustrations. Quote, My liege, I feel as if you abandoned India. We lack men, materials, and money. Our ships are rotten. Does your highness know the consequences of neglect and the necessity in which I find myself? I've had to take Malacca twice, Goa twice, make two attacks on Ormoz, and travel on the sea on a raft to remedy your affairs and fulfill my duties. Again, I come back to you saying that if you want to avoid war in India and have peace with all kings here, you must send plenty of troops and good weapons. Furthermore, sire, I beg of you, ignore those who would say otherwise. Put your trust in good fortresses. These forts, linked with control of the choke points on the oceans, would grant us Portuguese a domination that would be complete. End quote. After getting done sending off his correspondents, Afonso got to work retraining his men. Discipline had been lost and he was determined to get it back. In this endeavor, he was helped out greatly by his country. In mid-August of 1512, a fleet arrived from Lisbon. It consisted of 12 new ships and 1,500 well-equipped men. What's more, amongst the new arrivals were specialists who had been trained in the latest Swiss tactics of warfare, which is exactly what Albuquerque needed. The governor was determined to have a well-oiled fighting machine. For the next two months, the men of Portugal underwent some of the most rigorous training they had ever experienced. When it was all said and done, he had 32 platoons that combined into a corps of 800 battle-ready soldiers, who, by the way, were itching for a fight. For the next order of business, Albuquerque had to rope in his commanders. In his usual upfront manner, he demanded their allegiance. Those who still opposed him were kept under close scrutiny, or he found creative ways to get rid of them. Power quickly shifted back under his control. When the monsoons ended, Albuquerque knew it was time to act. The Red Sea and the Persian Gulf were the next objectives in his grand plan. But first, he knew he needed to secure his hold on India. Thus, he put aside Africa and Arabia for the time being, and he made Goa his next destination. His now revitalized armada departed Cochin and traveled up along the Malabar coast. In late October of 1512, it arrived at the city of Goa. The Portuguese, they come back to Brawl. It had been nearly two years since Alfonso de Albuquerque had taken Goa from Ismail Adil Shah, who was the Sultan of Bijapur. Now, while the Sultan may have been defeated, he was still very powerful. In response, Adil Shah put his long war against the Vijayanagar Empire to the south on hold, and returned in early 1512 to retake his city. Under the command of his general, Rasul Khan, the Sultan's forces overran the lands surrounding Goa and then invaded the island of Tisvadi, on which the city was located. The Portuguese and their allies had to retreat behind the city walls, and there they remained surrounded and under siege. At the eastern portion of the island at the Banastaram fort, the Sultan's general built a pontoon bridge and then secured his bridgehead by constructing a powerful fortress. Large wooden stakes were then driven into the Mandovi and the Zuari rivers to protect the fortress from naval attack. Overall, the Sultan's campaign was unfolding really well. But then came the monsoons. The incessant rain made the otherwise grueling ordeal into a vast battle of attrition. Men on both sides now had to fight the elements, as well as each other. Weeks turned into months. The defenders of Goa were pressed to the limit as supplies dwindled and their men began to desert. And had this continued, the city would have surely fallen. However, nearing the end of October, Albuquerque arrived with 16 ships and his corps of warriors. He also brought along an additional 3,000 native mercenaries. Arriving at the scene, the governor quickly took in the tactical situation. He knew that the Banastaram fortress was the key to victory, but he also discovered that it was heavily defended with nearly 8,000 men and it bristled with cannons. His enemies had obviously been upgrading their weaponry. Dividing the fleet in two, Alfonso sent 12 of his ships along the Mandovi river, and the remaining four were deployed up the Zuari. Under sporadic gunfire, the two fleets approached the stockades of large wooden stakes that had been drilled into the riverbed. The ships then destroyed them using cannons or used cranes to systematically pull them out. Albuquerque then deployed his vessels to blockade the river and destroy the pontoon bridge. By doing so, he had isolated the sultan's men on the island and had severed their supply lines. The besiegers had now themselves become the besieged. With no further naval opposition, the fleet was then ordered to begin bombarding the Banastaram fortress, which it would do for the next eight days. During that time, Alfonso would run back and forth commanding his men personally. At times, he would reprimand them for being too reckless in their attacks, but at the same time, he would stand in full sight of enemy cannons, making himself an easy target. Twice, the man standing next to him would take a direct hit from a cannonball and burst into a bloody explosion. Seeing this, both his men and his opponents began to believe that the governor was a man who could not be killed. Now, meanwhile, as the naval bombardment of the Banastaram fortress continued, Rasul Khan intensified his landward attack on Goa. He was more determined than ever to crush the defenders. He simply knew he had no other choice and that time was running out. However, the city garrison had been wisely reinforced with fresh troops, and despite having superiority in numbers, Rasul Khan's attack bogged down, at which point the Portuguese counter-attacked. They rushed haphazardly in, attacking chaotically. The confused and fierce battle that ensued left heavy casualties on both sides. When Albuquerque learned of these losses, he was appalled. His forces could not sustain so many casualties. Thus, the governor rushed to the city and began to organize his men into three contingents of pikemen. Then, his cavalry and archers were formed up into separate units and positioned in reserve. Discipline would be heavily reinforced. When he was ready, and despite being outnumbered, he ordered his men back onto the battlefield. On November 12th, the Portuguese moved out of Goa in a well-ordered formation. The three pikemen units took the lead in a near-solid wall, with the cavalry and archers coming in just behind them. Rasul Khan, in response, deployed his men to engage this incoming force. However, his forces lacked discipline and cohesion. Both sides moved in and clashed on a muddy, rain-soaked field to the east of Goa. The sultan's men initially held their ground due to their numbers. However, Afonso's extensive training would prove decisive. Roger Crowley, in the book The Conquerors, described the fighting that ensued. Where the noblemen wished to wield their enormous two-handed swords in heroic single combat, the governor instead wanted to deploy organized bodies of men in coherent tactics. As such, the compact body of men, composed of pikemen, archers, and musketeers, wheeled across the battlefield in good order and forced the loosely skirmishing Turks back. Albuquerque had seen the future of warfare and it was not popular amongst his men. He knew that tactics instead of heroics were needed. That cannon fire from a distance, rather than scaling the walls, would decide the outcome. But this went deeply against the medieval military culture that had been well-entrenched. As midday approached, the fighting became more intense. The sultan's men were able to regroup and began to heavily resist. But then the Portuguese cavalry was unleashed in a flanking maneuver that caught Rasul Khan's men completely off-guard. Their formation was shattered and they were forced to flee. Many made it back to the Banastaram fortress to take refuge behind their walls. But the unlucky stragglers, who took too long to get off the battlefield, got stranded in the mud. They were quickly dispatched by the Portuguese, who were in hot pursuit. The sultan's men, who managed to escape that and make it back to the river, would now face an even bigger problem. Afonso had his ships in place and they were determined not to let anyone escape. Volleys of cannon fire were shot into the retreating men. For them, it was a slaughter. The Fidalgos, now sensing glory and perhaps a chance to get rich, wanted to press the attack on the fortress. But they were grudgingly kept in place by their commander, who had something completely different in mind. For the next two days, Afonso had his men regroup and get ready for another attack. Their ships and their artillery were primed for another bombardment. Then, on November 15, 1512, Afonso began his final assault. However, this time, he would let his cannons do all the work. Hitting the fortress with the artillery that he had wheeled into place on land and having his ships open up from the water, the sultan's men were pummeled from all sides. The incessant shelling would continue for the next 72 hours, until finally, on November 18, Rasul Khan, realizing he had no other options, decided to raise the white flag. The battle for Goa was now over. Against the strong opposition of his men and from his inner circle of advisors, Afonso negotiated a treaty that allowed the sultan's army to retreat in peace. From his perspective, he had his prize and didn't have time for the standard mass executions. Granted, he did add some fine print to the treaty. First and foremost, everyone was to recognize that Goa was a part of Portugal. End of story. Second, the sultan's men had to leave their weapons behind, which included all of their cannons. And third, which some historians argued was a bit personal, all of the Portuguese who had defected and converted to Islam were to be taken as prisoners. Now, per the peace negotiations, their lives were to be spared, but Albuquerque ordered their ears and their noses to be cut off, followed the next day by their right hands and then their left thumbs. Those that did not die of infection from their wounds were then thrown into prison, or sent back to Lisbon to an uncertain fate. In the meantime, with his opponents retreating back to the sultanate of Bijapur, the governor now finally had time to solidify his hold on Goa. Up to this point, Alfonso had distinguished himself on the battlefield. He would now do even better in his administrative role. Goa's defenses were a first priority. Everything was upgraded. The city walls, the barracks, the shipyards, even the fortress at Banastarum was eventually rebuilt. Cannons were then brought in to secure every approach and to fortify every tower. A larger garrison was installed and Albuquerque even assigned a portion of his fleet, with the sole task of guarding what would now become Portugal's capital in India. From the perspective of commerce, Goa also held a considerable amount of leverage. It was, after all, the hub of the Arabian horse trade, a commodity that was essential to the war effort of every kingdom and sultanate in India. As such, Albuquerque began to receive diplomats from everywhere. He masterfully made trade agreements, but at the same time would never fully commit politically or militarily to anyone. Thus, the governor had a free hand to play regional powers against one another. And in certain cases, he would even go so far as to supply both sides of a conflict with weapons and horses. And keep in mind, the horse trade alone would bring in profits of 3 to 500%. At one point, the governor of the city of Diu, Malik Gaiaz, who was a former major enemy, even sent in his ambassador. Afonso, with the idea of keeping your friends close and your enemies closer, had something very special in mind for this envoy. Roger Crowley gives us the account, quote, Malik Gaiaz's emissary was treated to a masterclass in intimidation. The unfortunate man was taken on a tour of the shattered defenses of Benistatum, which was wrecked by Portuguese cannon fire. He was then shunted around the impressive stabling of the horse trade, the armories, and the warehouses. He was then shown a large cannon into which his head was thrust, to give him a sense of its mighty size. To finish off, he was strapped into a steel breastplate and then stood up against the wall, while a soldier aimed a musket at his chest. With the crack of the shot, the man thought this was his last hour. However, the bullet bounced harmlessly off. Albuquerque would later explain to his trembling visitor that Portuguese armor was bulletproof, and told him to take the breastplate back to his master as evidence. This, of course, was all intended to unnerve, end quote. This demonstration had the effect Afonso wanted. It sent shivers down the spine of anyone that would dare to confront him. Of course, he kind of kept it to himself that the bullet that had been used during this interaction was actually As time progressed, the spice trade began to shift to Goa, which was seen as a much more reliable stronghold to conduct business. Eventually, it would make the other cities of the Malabar coast, like Anovar and Cochin, relative backwaters. The only major obstacle that was now left was the city of Calicut, which had been a persistent thorn in Portugal's side since the time of Vasco de Gama. Every prior action against Calicut had been either ineffective or a military disaster. Indeed, Albuquerque himself had nearly died there. Its king, the Samudri Raja, like his forefathers, had been definitively anti-Portuguese. Afonso, however, came up with a creative solution. Through his sources, he learned that the Samudri's brother was sympathetic to Portuguese interests. Over the course of a few months, he politically courted the man, and when the timing was just right, he suggested to him that perhaps he should simply poison his brother and become the king. Within one week, the Samudri Raja was dead and Calicut had become an ally. Under Afonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese empire solidified its hold on the Indian Ocean. As a result, wealth poured into Lisbon, and it seemed to come from everywhere. From the spice islands of the Pacific, to Malacca on the Mele Peninsula, to the Malabar coast of India, to the Rim of Africa, and even the ports of Brazil, money filled King Manuel's treasury. The seas had become a highway for Portugal. Afonso was even able to send back a rare white rhino to his sovereign as a gift. The animal became a spectacle and made the court of Lisbon the envy of Europe. It would even inspire the artist Albrecht Dürer to create his famous rhinoceros woodcut. Now, sadly enough, despite all of his advances, nothing seemed to make the royalty happy. The letters of disdain from the king still arrived like clockwork. A frustrated Albuquerque knew it was time to complete his grand strategy and silence his critics. The Persian Gulf and the Red Sea were the last two objectives of his overall plan. Bottling off the Persian Gulf would control a vast arm of the Indian Ocean trade, and controlling the Red Sea would not only cut off the spice markets of Egypt and thus destroy the Mamluk sultanate's economy, but it would also put the Republic of Venice at the mercy of Portugal. What's more, it would put Mecca and Medina within easy striking range. Thus, the armada was once again assembled, the army was brought to readiness, and in February of 1513, Afonso de Albuquerque set off to the west. He was now determined to complete his life's work and bring his king's holy war to the heart of Islam.