Crystals, Mechanisms... When Ancient Tech Defies Science

The many stone megalithic structures all around the world have fascinated human beings since their construction, dates that, regardless of official estimates, were not entirely certain of. Perhaps above when these respective stone monuments were built is why and how. There is also the idea to consider that many of these stone megalithic monuments and structures, at least parts of them, are quite literally data storage units. Many ancient sites are known to use stone with a particularly high crystal content. And why there could be, and are various potential reasons for this, it's claimed by some researchers, particularly those in ancient civilization and astronaut circles, that crystal was a known means of storing data to those in antiquity. If we look at the pyramids of Giza, for example, we know that quartz crystal is featured heavily in the stone used. There have been various reasons put forward for this, not least of which is perhaps strength. However, might it be that within this mammoth structure is a whole host of data just waiting to be discovered and unleashed into the public arena? The Hall of Records, for example, has long been considered to be near the pore of the Sphinx. Might it be that this apparent Hall of Records, in fact, is a chamber made from stone containing crystal? Perhaps it even holds various crystal tablets that just might hold information from a long bygone age, in much the same way that crystal storage chips work now and will work in the future. Staying with ancient Egypt for a moment, we might note the connection of Abydos, where alabaster crystal, and the place of the gods. Although it is said that portals exist here, and that they would allow the pharaoh to communicate with the gods, might it be that this crystal was some means of advanced communication system with entities from elsewhere? As we have already seen, it appears very likely that advanced civilizations did once exist on Earth, and perhaps clues as to this advancement reside in one of the most mysterious and iconic sites on the planet. It is perhaps also worth noting that stones that make one of the oldest and well-known, if somehow overlooked constructions on the planet, Stonehenge in Salisbury, England. These mammoth blocks of bluestone are comprised of sand-sized quartz grains which make up an interlocking mosaic of quartz crystals. This is important as it once more fits in with this potential collective and widespread knowledge of the ancients. While it is known that this of the stones is what makes them so impervious to crumbling or erosion, might there have been another additional reason that such stones were used? Might it have been so that storage could be stored here, or so that communication with entities from elsewhere could be achieved? Might it even be evidence, tentative and speculative as it is, like other ancient sites, a potential portal can be activated there? A portal that might have been activated many times in the distant past. Taking that idea a stage further, and given that many of the points that these ancient sites exist on connect with each other through alignment, might these portals, perhaps created through the manipulation of naturally occurring energy with crystals, be able to transport someone from one such site to another? For example, from Stonehenge to the Might this also explain why civilizations that history tells us have never met share many of the same creation stories and astronomical know-how? There might also be another thing to consider with regards to the use of crystal in many of the megalithic stone structures around the world, and what's more, if there was any accuracy to the suggestion then it could explain how such huge structures were built in the first place. Researcher David Hatcher Childress addressed this in the book The Disinformation Guide to Ancient Aliens Lost Civilizations, Astonishing Archaeology and Hidden History, in which he told of a telephone conversation he had in the early 2000s with the idea that quartz crystals, when connected in a series and given high voltages, will bend. Essentially, if quartz crystals are put under significant pressure, even by being struck with a large hammer, it will result in a piezoelectric force that makes the stone become weightless. As such, it is able to be moved as if it was nothing more but a cardboard box of air. Might the electrification of the crystal content inside these mammoth pieces of rock allow them to be moved as if they had no weight whatsoever? Many legends from around allude to this very notion. Many have postulated that this might have been achieved using some kind of ancient sonar-type technology. However, might it be the physical makeup of the stones themselves that was the key? We might note that there have been signs of electrification noted in the Great Pyramids of Giza, and while this has been suggested by, perhaps rightly so, that is an indication that these ancient structures were in fact ancient power stations. It might be that this electrification was used to bring the pyramids together in the first place. That so many of the megalithic stone structures have such crystal content within them at least makes such a suggestion reasonable and possible. And furthermore, we might consider if the location of these sites, essentially along ley lines and energy vortexes, might have also played a part in this electrification resulting in weightlessness. Might that be why such ancient sites all lie along these lines, because the energy there is required to build such huge monuments and buildings to begin with? It is perhaps worth examining some of the legends and suggestions of how some of the ancient megalithic stone sites might have been constructed, and how that might tie in with such intriguing writings as the Voynich Manuscript. Several stories exist around the world of a time when rocks or stone could be made soft using the sap from a certain plant. Many legends of the Inca civilization, for example, contain many legends of melting rock so as to make it workable. Writing in the book The Disinformation Guide to Ancient Aliens, Lost Civilizations, Astonishing Archaeology and Hidden History, David Hatcher Childress relays how Hiram Bingham, the person who discovered the Incan site Machu Picchu, was told of a plant whose juices softened rock so that it could be worked into tightly fitted masonry. It wasn't just Bingham who heard such accounts of this apparent long lost knowledge of making it possible to fashion rock and stone as easily as you would clay. Childress, in the same book, goes on to tell how Colonel Fawcett also heard these same stories while in Peru of a liquid that softened stone to the consistency of clay. What's more, Fawcett's son Brian would tell of his own account in the footnotes of his father's book, Exploration Fawcett, while editing it. According to Brian, a colleague of his who was working in central Peru discovered an ancient sealed jar in an Incan grave. At first he believed the jar would contain some kind of drink, possibly containing alcohol. However, before he had the chance to see, the jar was knocked onto some rocks and liquid spilled out. Unbelievably, when Fawcett's friend looked down at the rocks, they were now as soft as wet cement. Elaborating, it was as if the stone had melted, like wax under the influence of heat. Although he wasn't certain, he would claim that the plant in question had dark red coloured leaves. Might the plant he be referring to be somewhere in the Voynich manuscript? Might such a plant have existed in ancient times that when the ground and its liquid released onto the stone made soft, it could be manipulated? And if so, might that plant be somewhere in the Voynich manuscript? Might this book indeed contain past wisdom from ancient times? We might consider just how many plants, fruits and even animals that will have become extinct and will remain completely unknown to us simply because there were no records of their existence, at least none that have been taken seriously. And if this plant has long since ceased to exist, might scientists be able to recreate its effects in the laboratory? Might such know-how not only help in potentially explaining just how such huge mammoth structures were built in the past, but also assist in the construction of buildings in the future? Ones like the ones of ancient times have such structural integrity that they last thousands of years, largely undamaged from the elements. There are many examples of technological know-how and advanced engineering in ancient times, and these range from magnificent megalithic structures to intricate designs of musical instruments and even medication. There is perhaps no better place to start when looking at technological achievements of the ancient world than the pyramids of Giza, not least as we still have no real idea just how these massive structures were built, or why. Even when experiments have gone ahead to try to explain these perplexing buildings, all have failed to provide a solid explanation. And as well they might, given that the pyramids are made up of millions of huge stone blocks, each weighing multiple tons. And what's more, the sheer precision with which these stones are being placed only makes their construction all the more mysterious. Whether the truth of just how the pyramids were constructed ever comes to light remains to be seen, for now though, they remain a complete mystery. Across the Atlantic Ocean, on the outskirts of Cusco in Peru, lie Inca ruins, some of which are just as perplexing as the pyramids of Giza. In particular, a fort named Sacsayhuaman, which is made up of equally huge stones that weigh around 100 tons each. Furthermore, the precise nature with which these stones are being placed are equally as advanced as the stone placements at Giza. Even more remarkable is the fact that these stones appear to have been treated so they have a smooth, polished surface, something that could only realistically have been achieved in a huge kiln much larger than has ever been known to exist. Much like the pyramids of Giza, there have been many theories put forward to explain how the stones were positioned and treated, none have been able to show conclusively that they are correct, and the fort's construction remains unexplained. If we cross back over the ancient lands of Europe, there is the Antikythera Mechanism, which was discovered off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera in 1901. Upon examination, it appears clear that the device is some kind of advanced mechanical reproduction of the solar system. This device is said to date back to around 200 BC, leaving those who have investigated it completely at a loss as to how such a device was built almost 2,000 years previously. In total, almost 40 separate intermeshing gears are contained within the device, which is entirely accurate in its workings, and is truly a peek into the past and the technological know-how that was clearly present in antiquity. Although it is something that has been well documented between the years of 600 and 1200, a weapon of the Byzantine Empire known as Greek fire still cannot be replicated today. According to the many reports of this deadly weapon, pipes were fitted to the masts of warships, which, when activated, fired a thick fire at enemy ships and soldiers, and what's more, this strange fiery substance was able to continue to burn for some time on the surface of the water. Suddenly, however, at some time around the 1300s, the deadly weapon simply disappears from history. It's not clear why this happened, with some suggestions being that the ingredients required to make this substance became suddenly unavailable, or that the knowledge of how to blend the required ingredients simply became lost as the empire itself weakened. What makes the Lycurgus cup is so intriguing, its remarkable decorations around its side, is that nobody is entirely certain as to what the cup is made from. What is further interesting about the Lycurgus cup is that the glass within it is dichroic, which means that when a light is shone behind it, it shines red, however, shining the light in front of it will make it appear green. What makes this so interesting is that this effect is achieved by changing the structure of gold and silver nanoparticles, something that modern science only managed to achieve in the 1970s. Just how this was achieved in an item thought to date back to Roman times is beyond explanation, although some people have put forward that this could have been completely unintentional and achieved purely by chance. It would appear from the many writings speaking of it that ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks made use of a drug that was an ancient equivalent of an antidepressant. Known as nepenth, it translates to anti-sorrow and was seemingly given to those who were feeling sorrowful or sad, what we would call in the modern world depressed. Although there is documentation of its use, it is not certain exactly what the drug is, whether it is a single plant or herb, or an ancient combination of different ingredients. Some researchers have suggested such drugs as cannabis or opium to be the true nature of nepenth. However, both drugs were widely known and used in the ancient world, and we would assume that they would simply be referred to as such. Whether nepenth contained a mixture of cannabis, opium, and other such drugs remains a mystery. Perhaps one of the strange mysteries from history is that of the Stradivari violin. Widely considered to be the finest violins ever built, the Stradivari family produced these masterful instruments throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. It is thought that around 600 still exist today, however, there is no one who knows just how to make or recreate them, meaning their numbers will continue to dwindle, and it is unlikely an exact replica will ever be reproduced. Although they can't be reproduced, some scientific studies of these instruments suggest that the wood they are made from is particularly dense, which is likely to contribute to their unique sound. Another substance that the modern world has collectively forgotten how to produce is Damascus steel, a particularly hard and strong metal used in the Middle Ages throughout the Middle East. Its ability to be shaped into particularly sharp edges made this metal ideal for making blades for swords and other weaponry. Like the Stradivari violins, although there are plenty of examples of these blades made from Damascus steel in the modern world, the knowledge to make the metal itself has been lost, and despite several attempts to recreate it, all have fallen short. While this knowledge was likely lost as empires fell and demographics changed, there was also likely an element of keeping such knowledge secret, meaning even in the Middle Ages only a select few would have been privy on how to produce the metal. In 1940 in the United Kingdom, an experiment was set up that is largely referred to as the Oxford Electric Bell, which involved two brass bells being buried beneath two dry piles and then sealed. This apparent makeshift battery then produces enough power to create an electrical charge that swings a hammer of sorts that chimes the bell. What is particularly amazing about this is that this battery has remained charged ever since and continues to chime the bell today. Scientists are not certain when the charge will run out, if indeed it will, as they don't wish to interrupt this generational experiment by delving beneath the dry pile. They will have to wait until the battery runs out before they can examine it further. Without a doubt one of the most remarkable technological achievements of the ancient world is Da Vinci's tank, otherwise referred to as Leonardo's fighting vehicle. When we examine the designs and blueprints of this vehicle, it's clear that Da Vinci was light years ahead of his time, both in this design and in general. Perhaps what makes this vehicle even more intriguing is that the gear system appears to have been designed and placed in reverse order. This could be one of the quirks that truly makes Da Vinci a unique and one-off individual. It could though, particularly if we subscribe to such notions as being able to look into the future or even time travel to explain this advanced know-how of some kind of reverse engineering. Indeed, the ancient world remains a mysterious place indeed. Port Mahomac Monastery in eastern Scotland is believed to have been built by the ancient Picts, a mysterious ancient people who once inhabited the north and east of Scotland. Recent research has revealed that the construction of this monastery appears to reflect the golden ratio or divine proportion, as it became known during the Renaissance hundreds of years later. This formula was originally identified by the ancient Greeks, but academics are struggling to understand how a relatively isolated tribe in northwest Europe discovered this supposedly secret architectural formula. The ancient Picts were a mysterious and enigmatic race about who little is known for certain. By the time the Old Norse or Viking sagas were being compiled in the 13th century, the memory of the Picts as real people had almost vanished completely, and they had become a semi-mythical race of fairies. Indeed, in popular tradition, perhaps because of the low-roofed or underground structures they built, they were supposed to be small, who were confused with fairies, gnomes, brownies, and similar supernatural creatures. Much of the uncertainty surrounding the Picts is due to the fact that they left no written records. The name Pict may come from the Latin Picti, which means painted, and may refer to their custom of body painting or possible even tattooing. Alternatively, they may have referred to them as Pect, the world for ancestors. One theory for their origins comes from the historian Bede, writing in 731, who said that the Picts had come from mainland Europe, possibly Scandinavia, to Northern Ireland to ask for land, but the Irish had refused and sent them on to Scotland. At the time of the Roman invasion of Britain in the 1st century AD, Scotland was inhabited by a number of different Celtic tribes, including the people who would later become known as the Picts. From the accounts of Britain written by ancient classical Greek and Roman authors, it appears that by the 3rd century AD, the predominant peoples of northern Scotland were all known as the Picts. The earliest surviving mention of the Picts dates from AD 297. In a poem in praise of the Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus, the orator Eumenius mentioned the semi-naked Pict and Hiberni Irish as enemies of Rome. Indeed, the Picts' war with the Romans during the occupation was almost continual. It was a war which they ultimately won, as Scotland never fell to the armies of Rome despite numerous attempts to invade. The Pictish nation seems to have comprised of several federations, each with its own leader or king, and by the 7th century there was a united Pict land, which was already partly Christianized. In 843, Kenneth MacAlpin, king of the Scots, also became king of the Picts, united their two lands in a new kingdom of Alba, which eventually evolved into Scotland. After 900 AD, no further mention is made of the Picts. No one is sure what happened to them, why they suddenly vanished from history. However, many researchers believe that they may have merged with the Southern Scots and the two cultures became one from then onwards. This unification of the two cultures was also influenced by the danger posed by the Vikings, whose raids along Scotland's northeastern coast were becoming more frequent. The Golden Ratio The golden ratio, symbolized by the Greek letter phi, is a special number approximately equal to 1.618, which appears often in geometry, art, architecture and other areas. The golden ratio is found when a line segment is cut into two pieces of different lengths so that the ratio of the whole segment to that of the longer segment is equal to the ratio of the longer segment to the shorter segment. In the hugely influential ancient mathematics textbooks Elements, written by Euclid of Alexandria around 300 BC, the definition reads, a straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser. The golden ratio is also known as the golden section, golden mean, or divine proportion. While it has always existed, it's not known exactly when it was first discovered and used practically. Researchers believe that it has probably been discovered and rediscovered on numerous occasions throughout history, which may explain why there are several names to describe it. It has been conjectured that the ancient Egyptians may also have used both pi and phi in the design of the Great Pyramids. The classical Greeks are also thought to have based the design of the Parthenon on this proportion, though there is some debate about this. Many researchers claim that if a rectangle is drawn around the face of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, the ratio of the height to width of that rectangle is equal to the golden ratio. Some also think that da Vinci also used it to define all the basic proportions of his painting The Last Supper. Although there is no proof to show da Vinci consciously used the golden ratio in his work, it is known that he was a close personal friend of Luca Pacchioli, who published a three-volume discourse on the golden ratio in 1509 entitled Divine Proportions. Indeed, da Vinci was responsible for the illustrations used in this work. It is certainly possible that not only da Vinci but other Renaissance artists used the golden mean in their paintings and sculptures to achieve balance and beauty. But what does all this talk of divine proportions have to do with an ancient Scottish tribe described by the Romans as primitive and half-savage? In fact, the Picts were skilled in farming and possessed a sophisticated culture which included seagoing trade and the elaborate and carving of paintings and stones. Porto Mahomac is a small fishing village on the shore of Dornoch Firth in northeast Scotland. Between 700 and 1100 Christian Pictish monks lived in a monastery on the site. The Pictish monastery was one of the most important archaeological finds for decades when it was discovered in the mid-90s, and ongoing work on material excavated there is still revealing fascinating information about its inhabitants and the monastery itself. So far, various sculptural fragments have been discovered as well as Pictish burials and a Viking horde dating to around 1000 AD, which have been secreted away in the wall of a church. There are also traces of burning in parts of the site, evidence that Viking raiders attacked the community at some point, according to experts. But it's the dimensions of one particular structure, known as the Smith's Hall, within the monastery complex that has attracted the most discussion. According to experts, this horseshoe-shaped building was constructed with an incredible symmetry that went way beyond what was necessary for such a building. When investigated further, the ratios of lengths of different walls and bays inside the window were incredibly found to conform to the principle of the golden ratio. Jean Goans, former chairman of the Archaeological Heritage Society of Scotland, confessed her astonishment to learn that the Picts had been using the golden section. It's really absolutely fascinating. It's mind-blowing stuff. This is staggering to hear, but I'm not totally surprised. I think they were pretty sophisticated. When you think of all the Pictish stones and the wonderful carvings that they made, a lot more sophisticated than perhaps they are given credit for in public perception. But how did the Picts obtain such archaeological prowess and mathematical knowledge? Martin Carver, a professor of archaeology at York University in the UK, who has worked on the site since the mid-1990s, said, The most important stone piece at the site has a Latin inscription. That's as common as muck in the Mediterranean, but extremely rare in Scotland. It says, this is the cross of Christ in memory of Rio, and the rest is broken away. Unfortunately, the key bit, the name of the person, is missing. It means there's someone around there who knows how to write in the 8th century. That itself is a revelation. This indicates that at least some of the monks at the site had an extremely sophisticated education for the time, but this alone would not be enough to account for the use of the golden ratio at the monastery. He says, the Picts have always been an attractive lost people. They are one of the most interesting lost peoples of Europe. The big question is what happened to them, and did they ever really make a kingdom of their own? They were the most extraordinary artists. They could draw a wolf, a salmon, an eagle on a piece of stone with a single line and produce a beautiful naturalistic drawing. Nothing as good as this is found between Port Mahomac and Rome. Even the Anglo-Saxons didn't do stone carving as well as the Picts did. Not until the post-Renaissance were people able to get across the character of animals just like that. The recent discovery of Roman coins during excavations of a castle in Japan have prompted the question of how in the world they got there. Perhaps Rome's empire stretched much further than previously believed, or there were Romans trading with the ancient inhabitants in Okinawa 1,800 years ago. Numerous Roman coins have also been discovered in southern India and Sri Lanka that are evidence of direct links with the Roman world. Could there have been direct links with Japan too? Could the Roman legions themselves have even travelled that far east? The vast Roman empire was at its maximum extent in the 2nd century AD, from the Antonine Wall in central Scotland to the deserts of Arabia in the Middle East and the Sahara in North Africa. But the commercial and diplomatic influence of the Roman empire reached far beyond the physical borders of the empire. This trade was absolutely vital to ancient Rome. The empire cost a huge sum of money to run, and trade brought in a large amount of money. The population of the city of Rome at its height may have reached one million people, and such a vast population required numerous amounts which could only be obtained via trade with other areas. It's no exaggeration to say that trade was such a vital part of the success of the Roman empire that once the empire collapsed, trade throughout the lands that had once made up that empire collapsed too. A very obvious sign of such trade is the presence of Roman coins. Indeed, coins are the most durable example of such contacts. Roman coins were first produced in the late 4th century BC in Italy and continued to be minted for another 800 years across the vast lands of the empire. It was recently announced in the media that Roman coins had been found in an extremely unusual location, a medieval castle in central Okinawa Honto, in the middle of the Yokatsu Peninsula. From 2013, a team of archaeologists from Erma City's Board of Education had been excavating Katsurin Castle, the seat of Lord Amurari in the 15th century. A couple of years later, Toshio Tsukamoto, a researcher from Gangoji Temple Cultural Properties Department, was visiting the excavations, examining the finds when he spotted something strange. In his own words, "...I'd come to analyze artifacts, like Japanese samurai armor, that had been found there when I spotted the coins. I'd been on excavation sites in Egypt and Italy and had seen a lot of Roman coins before, so I recognized them immediately." But the news was greeted with disbelief in the archaeological community. When archaeologist Hiroyuki Miyagi heard of the ten Roman and Ottoman Turkish coins that had been unearthed from the ruins of a medieval castle in Okinawa, he first thought it was a hoax. I couldn't believe they'd found coins from the Roman Empire in Katsurin Castle. I thought that they were replicas that had been dropped there by tourists. However, when Miyagi later examined the coins using x-ray technology, he changed his mind. You can see the engravings on the coins clearer when you use x-rays, he said. Miyagi found that the Ottoman coin contained an inscription that dated it to 1687, but the Roman coins appear to be much older, from 3 to 400 AD. One of the Roman coins has been identified as a copper alloy coin of Constantius II from 337 to 361 AD, the son of Constantine the Great. The published images of the other Roman coins are not as clear, but experts believe them to be of roughly the same date, from about 320 to 370 AD. How on earth did coins of the Roman Empire find their way to Japan? Was there some kind of connection between the Empire and the Far East? Could the Roman legions have travelled that far? Katsurin Castle was built in the 13th or 14th century AD and was occupied until the 15th century, so the coins cannot represent direct commercial links between the inhabitants of the castle and Roman Empire, which had fallen many hundreds of years earlier. Furthermore, other finds from excavations at the site include pottery from the same geological layer as the Roman coins, which dates to the 14th or 15th century, much later than the coins. Other finds from the castle, such as coins and ceramics, suggest trade links with China, so it's possible that the coins arrived there indirectly through trade with China or Southeast Asia. Masakai Yoko, a spokesman from Yuruma City's Board of Education, said that he didn't believe the Roman coins indicated direct trade, saying, we don't think there's a direct link between the Roman Empire and Katsurin Castle, but the discovery confirms how this region had trade relations with the rest of Asia. Most Japanese archaeologists are of the opinion that the Roman coins ended up in the castle after passing along different trade routes that linked the west to Asia. Some have suggested that Roman coins, like those found at Katsurin Castle, may have been in circulation as currency among merchants at the time, as many used Chinese coins, but Hiroki Miyagi believes that this could not have been the case. East Asian merchants in the 14th to 15th centuries mainly used Chinese currency, a round coin with a square hole in the middle, so it's unlikely that the western coins were used as a means of currency. Another mystery connected with the coins which attracted much less publicity than the possible Roman Empire connection with Japan is the presence of the Ottoman coin. This dates to 1688, long after the castle was supposed to have been abandoned in the 15th century. What was an Ottoman coin doing at an abandoned Japanese castle? Links between Rome and the Far East. Numerous Roman coins have been discovered in southern India and Sri Lanka that may well have been evidence of direct links with the Roman world, and direct trade with these areas has been proven. Some fascinating recent research has shown that it's possible that merchants from the Roman world may have travelled to Southeast Asia from at least the 2nd century AD. If this is the case, perhaps they travelled as far as Japan as well. Another possibility is that the coins at Katsurin Castle made their way there via Southeast Asia. Fascinating archaeological evidence from the Ithmus of Kra, on the Thai peninsula, includes imported materials from both Han China and the Roman Empire. It's known that gold pendants imitating Roman gold coins were used in the ancient Thailand and Vietnam, and a stone mould for casting such objects had been discovered in southern Thailand. But these pendants copy Roman gold coins of the 1st and 2nd centuries, much earlier than the examples from Katsurin Castle. One genuine Roman coin has been discovered in this area, a 3rd century coin of the Gallo-Roman usurper Victorinus, 268-270 AD, minted in Cologne, Germany. Roman coins from the 3rd and 4th centuries have been discovered at a site in Cambodia, but none of that period have so far been found in southern China. There is one particularly interesting recent discovery from Java. In 2017, a large group of ancient coins was said to have been discovered in the Brantus River near Truolan in the Indonesian province of East Java. The finds were not made by archaeologists, but by local gold panners, and include 10 Roman coins and a number of medieval coins from China. This find of Roman coins in is as puzzling as the one from Katsurin Castle. How did these coins travel to eastern Java, and how and why did they end up in the Brantus River, together with several much later Chinese coins? Another important point about the Roman coins from East Java and those from Katsurin Castle is that they were not high value in silver or gold, but small copper alloy coins that were fairly low value in the Roman world. This only adds to the mystery of their presence at these sites. Further studies of the artefacts discovered that with these Roman coins, and of the archaeological context in which they were found, is obviously needed. Hopefully, then we'll be able to understand how and why they ended up in the Far East, before the age of collectors and mass transport. The Antikythera Mechanism is an ancient Greek mechanical model of the solar system, and has been described as the oldest example of an analog computer. As it's the only one of its kind, its origins are a complete mystery. However, recent research has indicated that the Antikythera Mechanism might in fact be the famous planetarium made by the Sicilian astronomer, engineer, and mathematician Archimedes. However, ancient sources mention that Archimedes made two of these machines, which means that the other one is out there somewhere, waiting to be discovered. At Easter 1900, Elias Stadiatos and his party of Greek sponge fishermen were fishing off the coast of the tiny rocky island of Antikythera, between the southern Greek mainland and Crete. Surfacing after one of his descents, Stadiatos began babbling about a heap of dead naked women on the seabed. Further investigation by the fishermen revealed the 164-foot-long wreck of a sunken Roman cargo ship, over 140 feet down. The buried objects from the ship included 1st century BC marble and bronze statues, the dead naked women, coins, gold jewelry, pottery, and what looked like lumps of corroded bronze which broke into several pieces shortly after being brought to the surface. The shipwreck has subsequently been dated to 70-60 BC. The finds from the wreck were later examined, recorded and sent to the National Museum in Athens. On the 17th of May 1902, Greek archaeologist Spyridon Stais was looking through the odd lumps from the shipwreck, covered in marine growth from 2,000 years beneath the sea, when he noticed that one piece had a gear wheel embedded in it, and what looked like an inscription in Greek. There'd been a wooden case associated with the object, but this as well as the wooden planks from the ship itself had subsequently dried out and shriveled up. Further examination and meticulous cleaning revealed additional pieces of the mysterious object, and soon an elaborate gear mechanism made of bronze and was revealed. Stais believed the strange mechanism to be an ancient astronomical clock, but the prevailing opinion at the time was that it was too intricate a device to belong to a wreck dated by the pottery on board to the early 1st century BC. Many researchers thought that the mechanism was the remains of an astrolabe, an astronomical device for observing planetary movements used for navigation, the earliest known example of which is from 9th century AD Iraq, but no general agreement on the date or purpose of the artifact was reached, and the enigma was soon forgotten. In 1951, English physicist Derek de Sola-Price became fascinated by the complexity of the shipwreck mechanism, and began what was to be eight years of detailed study using x-ray photography. In June 1959, the conclusions of his analyses were published as an article in Scientific American, entitled An Ancient Greek Computer. X-rays of the mechanism had revealed at least 20 separate gears, including a differential gear previously thought to have been invented in the 16th century. The differential gear allowed for the rotation of two shafts at different speeds, as used on the rear axle of automobiles. Price deduced from his research that the Antikythera find represented the remains of a great astronomical clock, which had close ties to a modern analog computer. These conclusions met with some unfavorable reactions from scholars at the time. A certain professor refused to believe in the possibility of such a device, and hypothesized that the object must have been dropped into the sea in medieval times, and somehow made its way into the wreck. The discovery and reconstruction of the Antikythera mechanism has also persuaded scholars to look at descriptions in ancient texts of such devices in a different light. Roman orator and writer Cicero, writing in the first century BC and living at the time of the Antikythera shipwreck, mentions an invention of his friend and teacher Poseidonius. Cicero notes that Poseidonius had recently constructed a device which at each revolution reproduces the same motions of the sun, the moon, and the five planets that take place in the heavens every day and night. Cicero also mentions that the Sicilian astronomer, engineer, and mathematician Archimedes, about 287 BC to 212 BC, is said to have made a small planetarium. Apparently, Cicero saw it in the first century BC and said, the invention of Archimedes deserves special admiration because he'd thought out a way to represent accurately by a single device for turning the globe those various and divergent movements with their different rates of speed. The moon was always as many revolutions behind the sun on the bronze contrivance as would agree with the number of days it was behind it in the sky. Some researchers have even proposed that it was an astronomical device designed and built by Archimedes that was rescued from the Antikythera shipwreck. Credited with the first calculation of pi, the volumes of spheres, and the distance from the earth to the moon, Archimedes may well have had the skill and knowledge to craft something like the Antikythera mechanism. But could the Antikythera mechanism have been designed, built, or even owned by Archimedes? A number of other ancient writers also refer to Archimedes' planetarium, both in prose and in verse. The ancient Greek mathematician Pappus of Alexandria, who lived in the 4th century AD, wrote that Archimedes wrote a now-lost manuscript entitled On Sphere-Making. Pappus also states that it was the only manuscript written by Archimedes on practical matters. Could this lost manuscript contain a description of, or even instructions for using, the Antikythera mechanism? The latest dating of the Antikythera mechanism puts its instruction at around 200 BC, so it was already well over 130 years old when the ship sank. For some researchers, this new date after the death of Archimedes means that he couldn't have played any part in its creation. However, it was created just a decade or two after his death, which surely means that it's possible that the device may well have been designed by him and survived long after he was gone. Other researchers consider it unlikely that Archimedes built the device because it utilizes certain findings on the movement of the sun and moon, which are attributed to Greek astronomer, geographer, and mathematician Hipparchus around 150 BC, long after Archimedes had died. However, mathematician Tony Freeth believes that the original form of the astronomical computer came from Archimedes, and the Antikythera device represents a later version of this design. A study published by an Anglo-Greek team of scientists in the journal Nature in March 2021 put forward a believable theory for the functions and appearance of the Antikythera device. The conclusion of their paper states, the Antikythera mechanism was a computational instrument for mathematical astronomy, incorporating cycles from Babylonian astronomy and the Greek flair for geometry. It calculated the ecliptic longitudes of the moon, sun, and planets, the phase of the moon, the age of the moon, the synodic phases of the planets, the excluded days of the Metonic calendar, eclipses, possibilities, times, characteristics, years, and seasons, the heliacal risings and settings of prominent stars and constellations, and the Olympiad cycle, an ancient Greek astronomical compendium of staggering ambition. It's the first known device that mechanized the predictions of scientific theories, and it could have automated many of the calculations needed for its own design, the first steps to the mechanization of mathematics and science. Our work reveals the Antikythera mechanism as a beautiful conception, translated by superb engineering into a divisive genius. It challenges all our preconceptions about the technological capabilities of the ancient Greeks. Without doubt one of the most amazing and intriguing artifacts of the ancient world, the original Antikythera mechanism is currently on display in the bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, accompanied by a reconstruction. There is also a replica of the ancient device displayed at the American Computer Museum in Bozeman, Montana. The discovery of the Antikythera mechanism has challenged our perception of the scientific and technological capabilities of the ancient world in no uncertain terms. Derek de Sola Price commented that the civilization who possessed the technology and the know-how to construct such a mechanism could have built almost anything they wanted to. Unfortunately, most of what they created hasn't survived. The fact that the Antikythera mechanism isn't mentioned in any of the ancient texts that have come down to us, proves how much has been lost from this important and fascinating period in European history. In fact, if it wasn't for the curiosity of Greek sponge fishermen over a hundred years ago, we wouldn't even have this eloquent proof of the advanced scientific achievement of the Greeks of 2,200 years ago. The Vikings were one of the most mysterious and brutal groups known in history. They kept few historical records, but passed down their tales of battle and bravery through oral traditions. Legends of Viking artifacts, Norse gods, and horrific methods of torture still intrigue modern minds today. One of the most mysterious legends in the Vikings is the existence of the elusive Sun Stone. The stone has been mentioned in countless stories, passed down through generations. It's believed that seafaring Vikings would have used the stone to guide them on their voyages. To this day, we don't know precisely how this stone would have worked. While roaming the seas, the Vikings likely used several methods of navigation. Some researchers believe Vikings would have used the sun, as well as the paths of migratory animals such as birds or whales, to guide their way. These animals most likely would have helped guide them to Iceland, Greenland, and as far as North America. The recent discoveries also suggest that they may have also used sundials or other rudimentary inventions to navigate. But none of these methods have captured the interest of Viking researchers as much as the Sun Stone. The original stories of this mystical stone date back to the reign of Norwegian king Olav II. The many stories about the stone suggest that it would have harbored some sort of magical power. However, it's possible that the stone may have simply been some sort of crystal used to manipulate light. One theory claims that the stone could have been a special cut of calcite crystal. In modern times, replicas of these crystals have become popular for their ability to split light into several wavelengths, creating a rainbow effect. If this is true, the Vikings may have used the sun's rays and the spectrum to guide themselves around the ocean when there was no land in sight. This may also explain why people throughout history thought the stone was magical. To primitive people, the properties of the Sun Stone seemed impossible to explain. This could be where the stories of the mysterious Sun Stone originated. People simply couldn't understand how light could be projected from a stone in such an incredible way. Maybe the mysterious Sun Stone is not so mysterious after all. The weapons of the Vikings are legendary. One particular style of sword, known as the Ulfberhts, was especially unique. The craftsmanship applied to these weapons was hundreds of years ahead of its time. The privilege of having such a sword belonged exclusively to the elite. Because an Ulfberht sword on parallel strength could only be had at high cost. The sharpness and durability of the blade made it possible to cut through bone or a lower quality weapon with one blow. The quality of these swords was so remarkable that other societies would not be able to forge such a weapon until over 700 years later. Scientists have been mystified as to where these swords were created until recently when new information became available. A previous theory held that the swords may have their origins in the Middle East or Asia, but surprisingly it seems that the materials were sourced closer to where they were found, in Central Europe. A sword found in 2012 was studied for its chemical composition and it was revealed that this sword had a high manganese content, which implied that it didn't come from the East. The guard was made of iron with a high arsenic content, which suggests it may have originated from a European deposit. The pommel was covered with a sheet of tin-lead alloy. It was determined that the pommel plate lead had come from a site in the Taunus region, just north of Frankfurt, Germany. The lead would not have likely been mined and transported elsewhere for processing, since the deposit was already largely depleted in Roman times. This suggests that the sword was forged close to the source, bringing researchers one step closer to the elusive Ultberht sword. In addition to being known for their sea voyaging and advanced weaponry, the Vikings were infamous for their brutality. One particular infamous method of punishment is the Blood Eagle, a glory ritual Vikings are said to have performed on their most loathed enemies. The ritual involved carving the victim's back open and cutting their ribs away from the spine before the lungs were ripped out through the wounds. The fluttering of the lungs splayed out on the outspread ribs would supposedly resemble the movement of a bird's wings, giving the horrific practice its name. For years, researchers have dismissed the Blood Eagle as a legend. As the Vikings themselves kept no record, no archaeological evidence of the ritual has ever been found. However, the Vikings passed down their history via oral tradition in spoken poetry, stories and songs. Legends of the Blood Eagle have been dismissed by researchers as improbable and the reflection of Christian writers' desire to portray their Viking attackers as barbaric. However, one team of researchers has taken a new approach to the study of this mysterious ritual. A team made up of medical scientists and a historian bypassed the long-standing question of, did the Blood Eagle ever happen, and instead posed the question, could it have been done? Their answer was a resounding yes. Using modern knowledge of anatomy and physiology, along with a thorough reassessment of the nine medieval accounts of the ritual, the researchers studied what effect a Blood Eagle would have had on the human body. What they discovered was that even with the technology of the Viking era, the procedure itself would be difficult but not impossible to perform. The team studied nine medieval accounts of the Blood Eagle ritual and discovered that barbed or lugged Viking spearheads could have unzipped the ribcage quickly from the back. The researchers stated, if the Blood Eagle ritual was ever actually performed, it was reserved as a demonstration of elite power in the Viking age. The whole affair of cutting bones and removing organs would have been a blood-soaked gore-fest. However, the victims' screams would have silenced soon after the soft tissue was stripped from their backs, an event which the scientists said would have been audible over a significant distance. The brutality of this elite ritual seems to be in alignment with the character of this violent cultural group. The researchers also said Viking rulers had no qualms about displaying the dead bodies of humans and animals in special rituals, including during spectacular executions. The Vikings routinely used fear to establish dominance and the scientists concluded that the anatomical realities of the Blood Eagle make it clear that the procedure would be attention-grabbing, to say the least. So, what happened to this brutal and powerful culture? According to Welsh historian Gwynne Jones, the Viking age did not end suddenly. The downfall was the result of a combination of factors, principally a string of debilitating defeats in battle and the rise of Christianity. Between 950 to 1050 AD, Christianity experienced rapid growth in Europe. Christians went from being targeted by Scandinavian Vikings to successfully converting the villagers from the religion of Norse paganism to the faith of Jesus Christ. The result was the complete transformation of the region because, according to Jones, nothing was more characteristic of the northern lands than the old Norse religion. The Norse worldview slowly faded from the region with every new convert. Many of the new Viking converts were baptized and some eventually rose to leadership positions in their local churches. Many Vikings adopted biblical values and a new way of life in accordance with the teachings of the gospel. The disappearance of the Vikings can also be attributed to the decline of slavery. Years of raiding and killing their European neighbors created a lack of people to take back to their homeland to enslave. The Viking Scandinavian farms relied on forced labor to function. Without this labor pool, Viking sons were forced to remain home and do more work on family farms. The Viking way of life was proving to be unsustainable. Christianity also preached that the slave trade was immoral. As Vikings converted to Christianity, the practice of slavery diminished. So after centuries of pillaging, torturing, and murder, you could say the Vikings simply settled down to a quiet Christian agrarian life. Maybe they got tired and just didn't have much fight left in them after all that violence. By the 13th century, the Viking way of life was practically non-existent and for that we can literally thank Jesus.