History of the Ottoman Empire: The Conquest of Europe

In 1299, Osman, Uçbey of the Rum Sultanate in Asia Minor and son of Ertuğrul Gazi, founded the Ottoman Empire. The history of this state spans 600 years of grandeur, wars, and intrigue. A superpower in the early modern period, by the 19th century, it had approached collapse. How did the Ottomans become the greatest threat to Europe? Who killed Sultan Murad I? And how did ships travel overland to the Golden Horn? Further, the key events in the formation of the Ottoman Empire that changed the course of history in Europe and Asia. In the first half of the 14th century, the newly formed Ottoman state was only beginning its rise to power. The first sultans expanded their territory in Asia Minor. No authentic written documents from the reign of Osman I have survived, as the Ottomans did not record his life story until the 15th century. That's why the biography of this ruler includes many contradictory details, making it difficult to distinguish fact from myth. Even Osman's descent from the leaders of the Oguz Kayı tribe is questioned by researchers. One assertion remains closest to the truth. This sultan was indeed the founder of the Ottoman Empire. His son, Orhan I, whose mother was Osman's second legal wife Malhun Hatun, became ruler after his father's death. In the early years of his reign, Orhan conquered most of northwestern Anatolia and defeated the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos at the Battle of Pelikanon. It was under Orhan I that the Ottomans first conquered territory in Europe. This happened in 1354. The siege and capture of the fortress of Gallipoli, on the peninsula of the same name, opened access to the Aegean and Marmara seas. Most importantly, it enabled the Ottoman rulers to begin their conquest of the Balkans. The next sultan was Murad I, son of Orhan I and his concubine Nilufar Hatun, the first Christian slave to become the mother of an Ottoman ruler. In the 1360s, the commander Lala Şahin Paşa captured Adrianople, and the sultan made the ancient city the new capital of the state. In the conquered lands, Murad I created the Islet of Rumelia, the first European province of the Ottoman Empire. It later became one of its most important territories. In 1371, the Battle of the Maritsa, also known as the Battle of Çernomen, took place. In it, the first Beylerbey of Rumelia, Lala Şahin Paşa, with a small force, defeated the large army of the co-ruler of the Serbian king, Vukasin Merniavcevic, and his brother, the powerful nobleman, Uglasam Merniavcevic. Both brothers died in battle, and the Ottomans seized the southern part of the Serbian Empire. That same year, Serbian Tsar Stefan Uros V died. His state fragmented into separate parts, including the direct successor, Moravian Serbia. In the 1380s, Lala Şahin Paşa attempted to capture Sofia, the future capital and largest city of modern Bulgaria. Eventually, the Ottomans managed to seize the ancient city, which became part of the empire for over 500 years. The next significant event in the Ottoman conquests in Europe was the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, one of the largest battles of the late Middle Ages. On the battlefield met Ottoman Sultan Murad I and Serbian ruler Lazar Rebiljanović, who led a Christian coalition from the Balkans. Few reliable historical records of this battle survive. It is widely believed that the Ottoman army had a numerical advantage and that both armies suffered heavy losses. Lazar Rebiljanović and Murad I were both killed. The Sultan's death is attributed to the knight Miloš Obilić. This was the only time in history that a ruler of the Ottoman Empire died in battle. Nevertheless, the very existence of the Sultan's assassin is still questioned by historians. After the Battle of Kosovo, which ended in a draw, Serbian forces were exhausted and unable to resist the pressure of the Ottoman Empire. That same year, the Ottomans captured significant territory in the northwestern Balkans. The throne passed to Bayezid I the Thunderbolt, son of Murad and his Greek concubine Gulcicek Hatun. As early as 1390, the new Sultan began gradually expanding the territory of the Ottoman Empire in Asia Minor. In 1393, Bayezid I captured Tarnovo, the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The following year, he launched a prolonged siege of Constantinople, the largest city in Europe and capital of the Byzantine Empire, whose former glory had long faded. In 1395, the Sultan clashed at the Battle of Rovine with Mircea I the Elder, ruler of Wallachia. Although the Ottoman forces had a significant advantage, they lost this battle. The annexation of Wallachia had to be postponed for 20 years. In 1396, at the Battle of Nicopolis, the Ottoman Sultan defeated the army of crusaders led by the Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxembourg. This was one of the last large crusades of the Middle Ages. Despite European efforts, the Ottomans retained control of the fortress, continued the siege of Constantinople, and strengthened their influence in the Balkans. A few years after the Battle of Nicopolis, Bayezid I fully subjugated the Second Bulgarian Empire. By 1402, he had conquered almost all of Asia Minor. Meanwhile, a new threat emerged in the east. The Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, also known as Tamerlane, reached the Asian territories of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan had to lift the prolonged siege of the Byzantine capital and engage in battle with one of the most prominent commanders in world history. In the Battle of Ankara, the founder of the Timurid Empire defeated Bayezid I the Thunderbolt. The Sultan was taken prisoner and died under unknown circumstances. With this victory, Tamerlane also initiated the period of Ottoman interregnum, which was in fact a civil war between the sons of Bayezid I. Four princes vied for power, Mehmed Çelebi, Suleyman Çelebi, İsa Çelebi, and Musa Çelebi. The victor was Mehmed, son of concubine Devlet Hatun. In 1403, he defeated İsa at the Battle of Ulubad. Afterward, the defeated prince went into hiding, but was ultimately strangled by Mehmed's men. Suleyman and Musa opposed each other. In 1410, the Battle of Kosmodion took place. Suleyman won, but could not consolidate his success. Within a year, as he tried to flee from Musa's advancing army, he was killed. That same year, the victor of this conflict attempted to besiege Constantinople, but failed. Meanwhile, Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos managed to maintain control of the Byzantine capital. The Battle of Çamurlu, the final conflict of civil war between the sons of Bayezid I the Thunderbolt, took place in 1413. Mehmed and Musa had previously not been hostile, although what exactly bound them is unknown. In this battle, Mehmed defeated Musa, captured him, and ordered his execution. Thus, Mehmed, having defeated his own brothers, eliminated all rivals and definitively reunited the Ottoman Empire. During his reign, Mehmed I clashed briefly with the Republic of Venice. In the naval battle of Gallipoli, the Ottoman fleet, despite having a numerical advantage, lost to the Venetian admiral Pietro Loredan. Ottoman losses were significant. Their defeat temporarily secured Venetian dominance in the Aegean Sea. In 1417, Mehmed I forced Wallachia to recognize Ottoman suzerainty. From then on, this historical region in modern-day Romania was a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, with brief interruptions, until the mid-19th century. In 1421, the Ottoman ruler died. The next sultan was Murad II, son of Mehmed I and his wife Emine Hatun. Just a year after his reign began, he laid siege to two Byzantine cities, Constantinople and Thessaloniki. The siege of Constantinople was brief. Murad II attempted to capture the city, but was forced to abandon the siege and return to Asia Minor to suppress a rebellion by his younger brother, Küçük Mustafa. Another Ottoman attempt to seize the Byzantine capital ended in failure. The siege of Thessaloniki, the second-largest Byzantine city, lasted much longer. Murad II was determined to capture it at all costs. Andronikos Palaiologos, the son of the Byzantine emperor and the city's governor, lacked sufficient forces to defend it. As a result, in 1423, Thessaloniki came under the control of the Republic of Venice. The Venetians tried to convince the Ottoman sultan that the city rightfully belonged to their republic under the circumstances. But Murad II did not recognize their claim, so a prolonged blockade of Thessaloniki began, which at times turned into direct assaults. The inhabitants of Thessaloniki starved or fled, while the Venetians could neither lift the siege nor supply resources effectively. Meanwhile, the orthodox metropolitan Simeon of Thessaloniki encouraged locals to resist. Eventually, the townspeople were ready to capitulate to avoid destruction. The Republic of Venice failed to find allies to oppose the Ottoman Empire, and negotiations yielded no results. In 1429, the Venetians officially declared war on the Ottomans, and a year later Murad II gathered a large force and stormed Thessaloniki. Due to the prolonged siege and plundering of the captured city, its population decreased more than tenfold. After Murad II's victory, Thessaloniki remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1912. The defeat shook Venetian confidence and foreshadowed further conflicts with the Ottomans. In 1440, the Siege of Belgrade took place, the capital of the Serbian despotate, which was the successor of Moravian Serbia. At the same time, this fortified city became a key fortress in Hungary's defensive line meant to protect against Ottoman invasion. A Hungarian garrison was stationed in Belgrade. Murad II laid siege to the city, but Hungarian troops and the local population held the defenses reliably. Eventually, the siege turned into an assault, and the defenders of Belgrade repelled the attacks of the Ottoman army. After that, the Sultan lifted the siege and abandoned further attempts to capture the city. In 1443, the Crusade of Varna began. This military campaign was organized by several European states to stop the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans and Europe. The Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Eugene IV and led by the Polish king Wladyslaw III of the Jagiellonian dynasty. A year later, the Crusade ended with the Battle of Varna. In this battle, Murad II faced Wladyslaw III and his allies, the Voivode of Transylvania John Hunyadi and Mircea II, the elder brother of the famous Vlad III Dracula. Interestingly, by that time Murad II was no longer the Ottoman Sultan, having handed over power to his son Mehmed II, whose mother was a concubine of European origin, Huma Hatun. The Ottoman army crushed the Crusaders, dooming the Crusade to failure. Wladyslaw III died during a cavalry charge against Murad II's forces. One of the last attempts to stop further Ottoman expansion into the Balkans had failed. In 1446, Murad II returned to power at his son's request. He had to suppress a revolt by the Janissaries, the elite infantry of the Ottomans. The Janissary Corps was, according to various sources, created either by Orhan I or Murad I. Some historians widely believe that it was under Murad II that the Janissaries became the first infantry force in the world to use firearms. The Janissaries were European Christians who had been enslaved as children, converted to Islam, and turned into the elite of the Ottoman army. This corps was known for its influence and special status, which is why it sometimes took part in uprisings against the Sultan. The Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448 became the last military triumph of Ottoman Sultan Murad II. A united European army led by Hungarian commander John Hunyadi, then regent of the Kingdom of Hungary, launched an offensive in the Balkans to avenge the defeat at Varna. Murad II used his numerical advantage and achieved victory. In doing so, he paved the way for the final conquest of the Balkans and ended European attempts to save Byzantium. The Kingdom of Hungary no longer had sufficient military and financial resources to attack the Ottoman Empire, and Constantinople remained cut off from the Christian world. After the death of Murad II, his son and heir Mehmed II returned to power. Europeans hoped the young Sultan would not pose a serious threat for some time due to his lack of experience. Mehmed II, however, intended to the long-held dream of many of his predecessors, to conquer Constantinople. The Byzantine-Ottoman Wars had already lasted a century and a half. For decades, the Ottoman Turks had been seizing the territories of the once mighty Byzantine Empire, unsuccessfully trying to take the new Rome. By the end of its existence, Byzantium consisted only of the Peloponnese Peninsula in southern Greece, Constantinople, and its surrounding areas. Yet the empire continued to exist and irritate Ottoman rulers. Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos realized Mehmed II's intentions and appealed for help from European states. But few responded to Byzantium's desperate pleas. England and France were still at war in the Hundred Years' War. The Holy Roman Empire was dealing with internal conflicts, the Spanish kingdoms were involved in the Reconquista, and Poland and Hungary had not yet recovered from the defeats inflicted by Murad II. Only a few Italian states offered limited support, the Venetian and Genoese republics, the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Papal States. Eventually, 21-year-old Mehmed II strengthened the Ottoman fleet and gathered a large army. Western sources reported a massive force, between 100,000 and 300,000. Ottoman authors gave much lower figures, between 40,000 and 50,000. Modern researchers estimate the number at between 60,000 and 80,000. In any case, the Ottomans significantly outnumbered the Byzantines, who had between 7,000 and 11,000 soldiers. Nearly 35,000 armed city residents also joined the defense. The Ottomans' main advantage, besides their numbers, was the use of various cannons, including bombards. Among them the Basilica, one of the largest cannons in history. Mehmed II's forces surrounded the city by land and blockaded the Bosphorus Strait. For weeks, Ottoman cannons bombarded the massive walls of Constantinople. Even so, due to the inaccuracy and limited firing rate of the enemy's artillery, the Byzantines managed to partially repair the damaged sections. The Ottoman fleet could not enter the Golden Horn due to a large chain at the entrance to the harbor. So Mehmed II ordered the construction of an artificial bypass, and the Ottomans dragged their ships over land into the Golden Horn, bypassing the obstacle. After this, the Byzantines lost access to sea routes and could no longer receive the necessary supplies for defense from the Republic of Genoa. The Ottoman troops attempted several assaults on the walls of Constantinople. All their attempts resulted only in heavy losses. Therefore, they began to dig tunnels to enter the Mehmed II sent an envoy to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege in exchange for the surrender of the city. He also promised Emperor Constantine XI the position of governor of the Peloponnese, safe passage, and security for the residents who wished to remain in Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor agreed to pay tribute to the sultan and recognize all past conquests of the Ottoman Empire. Negotiations failed and Mehmed II began preparing for a final, full-scale assault. The decisive assault was the largest and came in several waves. Ultimately, Ottoman troops entered Constantinople, looted the city, but did not carry out a mass slaughter. They needed captives who could be turned into slaves. Mehmed II forbade the destruction of Byzantine capital. He planned to make it his residence, understanding the city's strategic and symbolic value. The Byzantines lost approximately four and a half thousand people, including soldiers and civilians. Another thirty to fifty thousand inhabitants were taken captive. Ottoman losses were significantly higher, according to various sources, between fifteen and fifty thousand. A large army and advanced technology allowed the Ottoman Turks to breach the massive walls of the great city. Mehmed II became the first ruler to successfully capture Constantinople. The young sultan declared himself Caesar of Rome and earned the epithet the Conqueror. At that time, the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, died on the day the city fell, under unknown circumstances. The conquest of Constantinople also marked a turning point in military history. For centuries, fortified cities, castles, and fortresses had been insurmountable obstacles for invaders. The walls of Constantinople were considered one of the best defensive systems of the time, but even they could not withstand the power of Ottoman artillery, especially the bombards. This signaled a shift in siege warfare. After taking the city, Mehmed II moved the capital of the Ottoman Empire from Adrianople to Constantinople. Today, the city, later renamed Istanbul, is the largest in Europe. The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the thousand-year-old Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans eliminated a long-standing enemy in the rear of their vast possessions and could continue their conquests in Europe. For contemporaries of Mehmed II the Conqueror, it meant the fall of the Roman Empire, founded before the Common Era, as they viewed Byzantium as the Eastern Roman Empire. The loss of Constantinople shocked the world. Many Europeans saw the fall of the city as a catastrophe. They feared that their Christian states would be next. The fall of Byzantium became one of the most significant events of the late Middle Ages. Some historians even associate it with the end of an entire era. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire, after 150 years of existence, entered a period of active military expansion and economic growth. Its strength lay in its massive armies and control over key trade routes between Asia and Europe. Soon, Ottoman sultans continued their conquests on the Balkan Peninsula and expanded the empire into Western Asia and North Africa.