At That Time Indian Kingdom Invaded Southeast Asia | Rajendra Chola & Chola Empire

Indian history can be a bit tricky for the uninitiated. In an effort to build a cohesive story for a nation whose people have been stitched together into a sort of post-colonial Frankenstein, we're given only a thin slice of the whole. The Indus Valley Civilization, the Mauryas, the Guptas, the Moghuls, the British Raj, and the Independence Movement. Simple, clean, and limited. And quite frankly, a bit stale. Here's the dirty little secret of Indian history. We rarely learn about its most That's about to change right now. Meet the Cholas, a visionary maritime empire from the deep south of India, in a region known as Tamil country. The Cholas were many things. Warlike, opportunistic, and politically manipulative. But above all, they were ambitious. By the medieval era, they had fashioned themselves into a regional hegemon that dominated their contemporaries in India and Southeast Asia, and established extensive intercontinental trade networks. Perhaps the single most impressive feat of the Cholas was their naval invasion of Southeast Asia in 1025 CE, part of a multi-generational effort to gain supremacy over international sea trade. The story of that invasion, and the century of pseudo-colonial intervention that followed, is one that challenges conventional perceptions of Indian empire. But let's dig into some historical context first. The Chola dynasty first came into being sometime around 300 BCE, in the Kaveri River Delta. From the beginning, the Cholas were reliant on the sea for wealth, their ports visited by ships from lands as far away as China and Rome. In the early medieval era, the Cholas were nothing more than a mere vassal kingdom to the dominant Pallavas. That all changed, however, when the Pallavas found themselves embroiled in a series of conflicts in 850 CE. From their core city of Urayur, the Cholas exploited an opportunity to capture the city of Thanjavur from the Pallavas, thereby wresting control of the region from their former overlords. Over the next 150 years, the Cholas went through what might be considered a civilizational golden age. Tamil arts, culture, and language flourished. Government administration was centralized and improved. Using processed palm leaves as a sort of paper substitute, the Cholas kept copious records, from administrative reports, to legal disputes, to internal reviews of official misconduct. Meanwhile, surveys and centralized revenue collection ensured fairness in taxation. The Cholas also introduced elected councils whose officials were subject to regular auditing. These and other reforms undercut the role of local feudatories, thus consolidating Chola power and creating the infrastructure necessary to maintain a large, well-run empire. But it was this man, Rajendra Chola I, who would put them on the world stage. As crown prince, Rajendra led campaigns against neighboring rivals. Under the command of his father, Rajaraja Chola, he conquered the Western Ganga dynasty, the Cheras, and the Pandyas. Together, they extended the boundaries of the empire over much of South India and Sri Lanka, defeating their enemies and forging deep political and familial alliances with the Telugus of Vengi. Thus, by the time Rajendra Chola I ascended to the throne in 1014 CE, he had inherited an empire on the precipice of historical greatness. Freshly coronated and no doubt influenced by his father's expansionary policies, Rajendra began to shape into being a true cross-regional empire. Rajendra was a busy man. In less than a decade, he used his navy to blockade and subdue rebellious lords along the Malabar coast, carved out territories belonging to the Western Chalukyas, supported his nephew's succession claims in Telugu country, finished his father's conquest of Sri Lanka, occupied the Maldives, and established Chola dominance over the Andaman Islands, thus securing a forward basin to Southeast Asia. He also installed his sons as regional viceroys to further entrench central control over these dominions. But even after all of this, he was just getting started. In 1023 CE, Rajendra decided to raid Northern India. He marched with his armies to the northeast all the way up to the banks of the river Ganges. On the way, he defeated the and, with the path cleared to Bengal, descended upon the Pala Kingdom and defeated them too. Rajendra was so pleased with himself that when he defeated the Pala Kingdom, he filled up large tanks with water from the river Ganges and transported them all the way back to the Chola heartland. To commemorate the victory, he constructed a formidable temple at the center of a new capital city, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, meaning Conqueror of the Ganges, and blessed it with his pillaged holy water. But why all this warmongering? Why risk everything to subdue distant enemies? See, the Indian subcontinent lies at the center of an oceanic trade superhighway known as the Maritime Silk Road. The importance of the Maritime Silk Road cannot be overstated. For thousands of years, ancient powers moved significant cargo along these routes. Early writings in Tamil country describe streets packed to the brim with goods from around the world, while government records in Tang Dynasty China indicate that the quantity of goods entering through its licensed ports generated a large portion of the country's total tax revenues. Control over the Maritime Silk Road was invaluable. Military and administrative dominance gave major powers the ability to position their economic machinery, such as trade guilds, more favorably in the global markets. The Chola military offensives were part of a strategy to suppress rivals that might otherwise compromise their supremacy over the Maritime Silk Road trade. It's hardly a coincidence that nearly a half century of conflict led to Chola control over most of the prominent trade centers along India's coasts. We've mentioned trade guilds a few times, so what role did they play in all of this? For most of Tamil history, trade guilds were influential in both the economic and political spheres. By the medieval era, trade guilds had grown extremely powerful, with some wielding greater de facto authority than local feudatories. There were many trade guilds, the 500 lords of Ayvalu, the Anjuvanam, and the Manigramam, among others. Each had their own specialty, history, and supply networks. An 11th century inscription describing the 500s said the following about the guild. Famed throughout the world, having 18 cities of the four points of the compass, born to be wanderers over many countries, by land routes and water routes penetrating into the regions of the six continents, with superior elephants, well-bred horses, large sapphires, moonstones, pearls, rubies, diamonds, cardamoms, cloves, sandal, camphor, musk, saffron, and other perfumes and drugs. Selling wholesale or hawking about on their shoulders, preventing the loss of customs duties, filling up the emperor's treasury of gold and his armory of weapons. The guilds likely wielded significant behind-the-scenes influence. We know that the trade guilds would maintain their own flag standards, as well as their own private armies and fleets. We also know that some trade guilds lent money to kings, including Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola. It was a risky proposition to go against the demands of the trade guilds. If Rajendra were to get on their bad side, he might find his rivals suddenly equipped and funded to stage a takeover. To put it bluntly, the trade guilds benefited from Chola dominance of the Maritime Silk Road trade. Whether they actively pushed for war remains a mystery, but it's fair to say, yeah, they probably did. Having secured their dominance over the Maritime Silk Road vis-à-vis other Indian powers, one would think that the Cholas could finally sit back and enjoy their hard-earned rewards. But that was not the case. Srivijaya, a powerful thalassocracy based in the Malay archipelago, was actively interfering with trade and damaging Chola interests. See, by the turn of the 11th century, the Maritime Silk Road was undergoing some significant changes. The decline of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad was matched by the rise of the Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt. Ships leaving from the Fatimid territories would scoot past the Horn of Africa and toward Chola ports, where goods would be sold and re-transported by Tamil crews headed towards Southeast Asia and China. Meanwhile, on the other side of Asia, the Song Dynasty ushered in an era of unprecedented economic prosperity. Everyone was lining up for an egg from the Song Dynasty golden goose, including, of course, the Fatimids. Thanks to the creation of powerful pro-trade dynasties on both ends of the Maritime Silk Road, the sea trade was booming in a way that it had not for several centuries. Normally, ships would stop at both South Indian and Southeast Asian ports, but advancements in shipbuilding technology meant that ships could travel farther, faster, and more safely than ever before, making two stops unnecessary. Soon, the central region of the Maritime Silk Road played host to an intense and underhanded competition between Srivijaya and the Cholas. For years, Srivijaya bribed Orang Laut, colloquially known as sea gypsies, to stop them from engaging in piracy and interfering with trade. The sea gypsies were aboriginal communities who lived along the coastlines of Srivijaya territory. Like most pirates in history, they were frustrating and useful in equal measure. The sea gypsies received a portion of customs proceeds from Srivijaya, and in turn promised to do something less violent with their time, like fishing. Once the trade conflict with the Cholas heated up, however, Srivijaya actively encouraged the sea gypsies to re-engage in piracy, this time on their behalf. The sea gypsies began to force all passing ships to dock at Srivijaya ports and pay customs, resupply, and more. As a result, Chola ports were being made redundant. There is also evidence that Tamil trade guilds were being actively suppressed in Southeast Asian ports due to Srivijaya's influence. Interference with Maritime Silk Road trade no doubt prompted Rajendra to attack the Srivijaya and normalize the situation. After all, he and his father had not spent decades warring and subduing their maritime rivals in India simply to have the fruits of their rot on the vine. Srivijaya would have to be punished. The Chola invasion involved three major Southeast Asian players, Srivijaya of course, but also Tambalinga, a Malay kingdom based out of what is now southern Thailand, and Angor, an ambitious peninsular kingdom based out of what is now Cambodia. In the early 11th century, the Cholas were a staunch ally of Angor, while Srivijaya was allied with Tambalinga. It's possible that religion played a part in this diplomatic arrangement. Tambalinga and Srivijaya were Buddhist kingdoms, while Angor and the Chola empire were Hindu Shaivite. In the year 1025 CE, the kingdom of Angor was embroiled in a conflict with Tambalinga and requested military assistance from the Cholas. The Cholas agreed to help Angor, likely knowing what would happen next. When the Cholas formally declared war on Tambalinga, Srivijaya came to the aid of its ally and declared war on the Cholas and Angor. With their inevitable conflict now made real, Rajendra Chola gathered his navy and prepped for the subsequent invasion. The Chola navy was on the leading edge of naval technology for their time. In years past, Rajendra's father had imported the talents of Chinese and Arab shipbuilders to work on research and development for the Chola navy. With their help, the Cholas implemented critical naval technologies, including watertight hull innovations that allowed their fleet to a mariner's compass, and further advancement of a flamethrower weapon not unlike the legendary Greek fire utilized by the Byzantine fleets. When the war began, Srivijaya was the main target. Rajendra split his fire-breathing fleet into two groups, the main invasion fleet and an auxiliary force. The auxiliary force was sent to the entrance of the Straits of Malacca, where the Srivijaya fleet was waiting, positioned to take on what they assumed would be the bulk of the Chola fleet. Little did Srivijaya know that the Chola main invasion fleet was sent south of Sumatra, positioned behind the island. With the element of surprise on their side, the Chola fleet circled around the island and made their way to Palembang, the southern capital. When they arrived, they sieged and sacked the city. Afterwards, the combined Chola forces pincered the Srivijaya fleet in the Straits, defeating them easily. Why was this decisive maneuver allowed to happen? Well, Srivijaya did not anticipate that the main Chola invasion fleet had been outfitted with technology that allowed them to traverse the rough waters south of Sumatra. It wasn't an unreasonable blind spot. Moving an entire fleet south of Sumatra during the monsoon season had never been done before and was seen as impossibly risky. After steamrolling the Srivijaya navy, the Chola forces laid siege to Kadaram, the northern capital of Srivijaya, and captured this important administrative and trade center for themselves. For the Cholas, conquest seems to have been uncompromising. They plundered countless treasures and took the Srivijaya king, Maharaja Sangrama, as their prisoner. With Srivijaya effectively subdued, the Cholas finally moved a portion of their fleet to battle with Tumbarlinga and helped to quickly bring back kingdom under Angora's control. The Southeast Asian invasion was an unequivocal success. In just a few months, the Cholas had defeated the mighty Srivijaya and ended a prosperous multi-century dynasty. Though the invasion brought an end to the Srivijaya-Sailendra dynasty, its impact was manifold. Success emboldened Chola ambitions in Southeast Asia. For the next hundred years, they became intimately involved in Southeast Asian politics. The Cholas formed new alliances, performed raids, and generally used their influence to bully the weaker players so as to create an economically favorable situation, something of a pseudo-colonial approach. To entrench themselves further, the Cholas established permanent military garrisons in Srivijaya and Angora territory to serve as remote forces for promoting their interests. The soft influence of the Cholas increased too. Tamil trade guilds came to dominate in the major commercial centers of Southeast Asia and Southern China, and the Cholas sent regular political envoys to China, Angora, Bagan, Pegu, Srivijaya, and other Asian powers, establishing closer diplomatic relations. In the wake of the invasion, Chola elite intermarried with Southeast Asian royalty. Rajendra, for example, is believed to have taken Onan Kew, the daughter of the captured Srivijaya king, Sangrama, as his wife. Since that time, Malay royalty claimed and continue to claim Chola heritage, and their princes have been variously named Raja Chulan, an attempt to recall this unique past. But intermarriage was more than a historical curiosity. Close family relations meant that the Chola could more legitimately prop up claims of royalty that would be friendly to their interests. In 1077 CE, for example, a succession dispute in Kadaram led to direct Chola intervention. Rajendra's grandson, Kulottamga, conquered Kadaram on behalf of a Chola-descended claimant to the crown, putting him on the throne as a sort of puppet king. But familial connections would not always lead to loyal service to the At the turn of the 12th century, Sri Lume Chola, a half-Tamil, half-Malay prince from Sumatra, was sent with the Chola expeditionary force to the Philippines to scout the country ahead of a potential invasion. Sensing an opportunity to make himself into a king, Sri Lume suddenly decided to defect from the Chola empire and conquer the island of Cebu under his own banner, establishing the long-lived Rajahnate of Cebu. Though the Cholas lay forgotten by the bulk of humanity, their legacy survives in the blood and culture of their descendants, in India and in Southeast Asia. For far too long, the world has lived in quiet ignorance of the great power that once emerged from across the sea. And now you know.