中世紀曆史 The Great Courses網課：流傳至今的中世紀遊戲 網課精選

在他的歷史作品《漢威第五》中 希克斯比爾賦予中古英國王國 採取了全面的冒險 他領導了一支小小的累積軍隊 戰勝一支重型的法國軍隊 在阿靖堡戰爭中 簡短地結合了兩國 合乎意義 漢威的決定 建立一艘漢威軍隊 被敵人挑戰成了一場踢足球比賽 在劇中的開場 漢威正在討論 與法國主席和領導人的協議 兩人正在嘗試 勸告漢威結束在法國的戰爭 而前人則要求漢威 放棄戰鬥 或與在家附近的 反共人士戰鬥 沒有爭議能贏得這一天 當漢威致電到 由Dauphin的領導人 法國皇帝的父親 和漢威的親戚 領導人傳達了 領導人的信息 您的皇帝近日前往法國 證明瞭某些褻瀆 在您的偉大的前輩 金·埃德瓦德三的右邊 在回應此聲明中 我們的主席說 您太過欣賞年輕人 並要求您受到建議 法國並沒有一個 能與柔軟的勇士在一起的人 您無法進入那褻瀆 他因此發送給您 為您的靈魂 一大堆寶藏 並在此之際 希望您讓您所謂的褻瀆 再也聽不到您的聲音 此謙虛的講話 提到漢威在年輕時 如同一個普通的哈里 他曾經在倫敦的街道上 遊樂場和遊戲桌上 與一群不受歡迎的夥伴們聚集 但哈里現在是哈里 以及英國的皇帝 緊張地看著此謊言 漢威要求他的叔叔 埃德瓦德三的皇帝 打開褻瀆的寶藏 並告訴他它含有什麼 埃德瓦德三回應 我的褻瀆是足球球 漢威回應 我們很高興 Dauphin和我們相處得如此愉快 我們感謝你 為了他的存在和你的痛苦 當我們將我們的褻瀆 套在這些球上時 我們會在法國 以神的恩賜 進行一場比賽 將擊破他父親的皇帝的褻瀆 告訴他 他串通了如此的褻瀆 讓整個法國的法庭 都受到迫害 掌握了Dauphin提出的遊戲語言 漢威展示了 他的知識 他的規矩和策略 他如何用他的褻瀆 打破法國皇帝的褻瀆 使其失去防禦力 他還會 將所有法國的球場 以及王座的球場 全都炸毀 射擊的技術 使對手無法返回 這場比賽 我必須強調 這部電視劇不僅是 褻瀆為戲劇效果而創造的 一大堆英文歷史文獻 是這部電視劇的主要來源 和其他歷史劇 我們可以讀到 未來的查爾斯七世 擁有褻瀆的皇帝 的冠軍 曾經對漢威進行了對抗 他給了他一個禮物 名為巴黎的球 遊戲名為Réal 真實或皇帝的乒乓球 確實是在12世紀的法國 創造出來的 當時的一個小王國 集中在巴黎 原本 它是一種手球 叫做Jeu de Paume 它一直被打 用手掌 打球 在許多地方 已有千年歷史 這當然是一個 非常方便 和便宜的過渡 你只需要一個球 和一個對手 或一個牆 但在巴黎 玩家們開始 使用特別的滑板 或滑板 以打球 打得更用力 更有準確度 這句話 Tennis 可能來自早上的 Tenez 意思是 看著 或頭上 發出的訊號 在比賽的 開始時 現在的Tennis 的詞彙 仍然含有 中古法的 起源 因此 愛是 L'oeuf 雞蛋 零 Tennis遊戲 可以在戶外 在牆上 或在隱藏的 或封閉的空間 但中古法的 佛教徒 和想要 操縱它們的人 開始建立 特別設備的 擂臺 讓觀眾 坐得舒服 據估計 當時 在16世紀 在1530年 Henry VIII 在英國 奪得哈姆頓擂臺 大廈的 擂臺的時候 他重新設計 擂臺 為了加入 一個Tennis擂臺 並且為了 成為一個 對他的 法國對手 Anne Boleyn 在1536年 正在看著 一個Tennis遊戲 然而 對她來說 Tennis擂臺 在倫敦大廈 Tennis擂臺 是皇帝的 原始運動 在駕駛 和騎馬之前 有一件 與皇家聯盟 相似的事件 來自一個 著名的 早期的 英國聖誕戲 叫做 《第二匹馬》 第二 因為它跟隨 一個比較普遍的 關於耶穌的誕生 的遊戲 在它的 唯一存活的書中 我們看了 一個場景 在皇帝的英文 調查中 在遊戲中 一群 牧羊群 被Mack 獵頭人 和他的妻子 Jill 騙取了 獵羊群的 獎牌羊 然後假裝 牠是新生的孩子 獵羊群 終於發現了 他們的錯誤 但他們對 寶寶羊群 是獲得了 真正的寶寶 耶穌 他們給牠們的 唯一負面禮物 一隻鳥 一堆草莓 和一支乒乓球 這些家庭物品 也充滿了 象徵性 鳥是聖靈 草莓代表了 聖母的誕生 也代表了 瑪利歐的 聖誕歌 關於瑪麗的 神聖誕生的 而乒乓球 是皇帝 獲得的 慶典禮物 獵羊群的講話 他向 寶寶羊群表達 是酸酸的 甜甜的 Hail darling dear full of godhead I pray thee be near when that I have need Hail sweet is thy cheer my heart would blade to see thee sit here and so poor weighed with no pennies Hail put forth thy doll I bring thee but a ball have and play thee withal and go to the tennis Closely related to tennis but much more ubiquitous and popular then as now are the many kinds of football developed and played throughout medieval Europe often involving entire villages pitted against one another Of course kicking and hitting balls are pastimes as old as humanity but there is a pretty straight line to be drawn from what we know about medieval football and the modern sport including the use of goal posts or nets to mark the scoring of points It's even been suggested that the doorways or balconies of parish churches at either end of a town square could have been used for the goals of rival teams The carved underside of a wooden misericord that is the merciful little wooden seat that a weary monk or chorister could perch on during a long church service depicts two young men from opposing sides skirmishing over a ball In this example from the English cathedral of Gloucester the boys are warmly dressed and wearing hoods suggesting that their match was part of a game associated with the winter holidays This is corroborated by a famous description of medieval London and its sports or ludi a Latin word that has the same range of meanings as our English synonyms for any type of game or play A highlight of the year was a festive football tournament played by all the city's lads on Shrove Tuesday, Mardi Gras which marked the end of the carnival season The description is featured in the earliest biography of St. Thomas Beckett who had been born and raised in London and must have participated in these activities as a boy And here's a quotation After midday all the youths of the city go out into the fields to take part in a ball game The students of each school have their own balls The workers from each city craft are also carrying their balls Older men, fathers and wealthy citizens on horseback come to watch the youngsters competing and to relive their own youth vicariously You can see their inner passions aroused as they watch the action and get caught up in the fun being had by the carefree adolescents In fact, as we would expect from the passions roused by football matches today medieval authorities often moved to ban these games at times of urban unrest or particularly bitter rivalries between teams In the 14th century, for example the Oxford coroner had to investigate the circumstances in which a student had been killed in the course of a football game between his friends and a group of Irish students This could mean either that this form of the game was more dangerous like the rough sport later associated with the grammar school founded at Rugby in the 16th century or that something had occurred during the game to become a catalyst for violence In 1314, to take another example the mayor of London issued a decree prohibiting a variety of sports and pastimes that were known to disturb the peace on the grounds that King Edward II was embarking on a war against the Scots and had charged his officials to maintain order in his absence As a result, the carrying of arms was forbidden within city walls even for use in fencing schools and there was a specific ban on football games The decree originally in Anglo-French reads And because there is great uproar in the city due to certain ragerie de grosse pelote to pay that is, big heated football matches being played on common land from which many evils can arise from time to time he forbade that these games be played within the city precincts However, the wording of this injunction would have been a clear indication to his listeners that it was okay to play outside the city across the Thames where other forbidden looting were traditionally allowed Ball games as a test of skill and accuracy could also take the form of bowling for which there are terms in a range of medieval languages Bool, bocce, petanque and a related category of sports involved competitive projectile throwing from horseshoes to hammers to quotes These games, too, could go awry Another coroner's report this one from London in 1275 reported that two friends called John Foutard and John Leclerc quote, were playing together with their tiles in the churchyard when the latter throwing the tile in his turn and quite against his own will struck the said John Foutard on the right side of the head making a wound two inches long and penetrating to the brain This unfortunate John died six days later There is no record of the verdict against his friend but it was probably ruled involuntary manslaughter Board games and games of chance were also of enormous importance during this period crowned by that other medieval sport of kings, chess In my earlier lecture on accounting and risk we were introduced to the checkerboard cloth of the English exchequer where counters representing sums of money were tallied and stacked Games of checkers or drafts also using counters have been played for much of human history But it was only in the Middle Ages that this board became the stage of epic and sometimes never-ending or unresolved battles between two royal miniature armies The earliest written accounts of chess in medieval Sanskrit and Middle Persian give it similar names Shatoranga in Sanskrit and Shatrang in Persian both referring to the four limbs or divisions of an army which in those lands included elephants and chariots or camels as well as cavalry and infantry The names for chess and Arabic and Greek are obviously related Shatranj and Zatrikion The Latin term ludus cacorum or scachi and its vernacular derivatives have been tied to a different Persian word Sha, king yielding both check and chess The etymology of mate is more contested with some historical linguists pointing to the Persian mait which means helpless or abandoned while others relate it to the Arabic maitah is dead That chess had already been well established in the medieval Mediterranean world by the early 11th century is clear from a letter of complaint written by Peter Damian a theologian and Bishop of Ostia the port of Rome in which he officially informs another high-ranking churchman that he had happened upon the Bishop of Florence absorbed in a game of chess Damian had rebuked his fellow bishop and insisted that church cannons forbidding games of chance like dice also applied to chess But Gerardus the Florentine bishop so accused retorted that chess was a game of skill Another early indication of the game's adoption in Italy is the so-called chess set of Charlemagne made from elephant ivory which actually dates from the 11th century and is thus contemporary with Peter Damian's anecdote The famous Lewis chessmen found on that Hebridean island in Scotland are made of walrus ivory and were probably crafted in Norway during the 12th century Evidence of how quickly the game had travelled from the Mediterranean to the northernmost reaches of Europe As chess took hold in medieval Europe the distinctive appearance of its pieces their movements and the rules of the game began taking on the forms familiar today via a relatively rapid process of codification that indicates how widespread and universal the game had become European influence is most significant in the substitution of the queen for the figure of the vizier the advisor or fixer of a king who could only move one square diagonally at a time This replacement had begun to occur by the beginning of the 11th century with the word vizier becoming in old French fier proud lady Within the next few centuries moreover the queen had become the most powerful figure on the board moving fluidly and mirroring the tricky movements of a powerful woman's political maneuvers In addition to the king the most stable pieces over time were those of the horseman or knight and pawn whose deliberate but vulnerable pacing matched the slow movements of medieval infantrymen Meanwhile in Europe the Asian elephant became a bishop in English a fool in French or a herald al fieri in Italian But its role remained the same. The Indo-Persian chariot or Arab camel rook became in Europe la roche or rook reflecting the new importance of fortified castles in the 11th century. Indeed, it's clear that part of chess's allure derived from the ways that it mimicked or commented on the roles of various categories of people in medieval society, which made chess a metaphor not only for warfare and kingship but for political strategy business dealings and seduction. Chess games are featured in thousands of extant medieval artworks, from ivory carvings to manuscript illuminations to love poems. Chess was also an apt allegory for life lessons. In the 13th century, a Dominican friar called Jacopo of Cesole, an aptly named town in the Piedmont region of Italy, composed a Latin treatise entitled On Human Morals and Noble Duties According to the Game of Chess, a text which was soon translated into French as Le jeu des échecs moralisés, The Moralized Game of Chess. Jacopo offers a fanciful origin story for the game, claiming that it was invented by a Greek philosopher improbably named Xerxes. According to the Middle English translation of William Caxton, published in 1474, the philosopher wanted to teach the manners and conditions of kings, of nobles, and of the common people and of their offices, and how they should be touched and drawn, that is, handled and influenced. The philosopher also wanted to teach the reader how he should amend himself and become virtuous. After explaining the setup and rules of the game, Jacopo then devotes a section of the text to the role of each piece and how it teaches us about its human counterpart in society. He even gives each pawn a separate identity corresponding to the types of commoners in a medieval city-state, laborers, smiths, notaries, merchants, physicians, innkeepers, watchmen and entertainers. Jacopo then goes on to discuss the virtues and vices common to each class of people and the ways that a good ruler can make laws and use his influence for the betterment of society. A gorgeously illuminated copy of this work now in the Vatican Library shows Jacopo preaching from a pulpit adorned with a large chessboard and his audience wrapped with interest. Many representations of medieval chess matches suggest that the game was also a spectator sport and an opportunity for players to perform and show off the newest fashions. The success of the Netflix series The Queen's Gambit suggests that not much has changed in this regard either.In one illumination a lavishly dressed party of young people watch two of their number play a game for apparently high stakes. An older man in the background hoists a sack full of money on which the female player casts an anxious glance, her pet squirrel at her feet. Her male opponent reaches for a piece on the board as his little dog snuffles around him. An intense couple, she with her arms folded, he hugging her from behind, are mirrored by a couple on the left, both equally riveted on the game, she whispering in his ear. On the far right of this image, another man has his sword out and is making eye contact with the older man wielding the sack, another indication that a lot is riding on the outcome of this game. The association of chess with gambling, which was hugely popular at all echelons of medieval society, helps to explain the discomfiture with which elite clergy regarded this pastime, especially if it were played for money or wagers. As noted above, Peter Damian had accused a fellow bishop of engaging in a sinful act when he played a game of chess. He had even warned that canon law allowed for the deposition of dicing bishops, aliatores episcopi. But the accused cleric was indignant in his own defense, saying, one is chess, the other is dice, so if that church authority prohibited dice, it must have allowed chess precisely because it remained silent about it. To which retort Damian had fired back, chess, I said to him, isn't cited in the scriptures either, but the word dice includes both types of games. And Peter Damian may have been correct in this. Some scholars have suggested that the earliest form of chess, as played in India, had involved the throwing of dice. It may be that this practice continued to be a variant of the game as it made its way westward. The first detailed description of the game certainly shows that it could be adapted in many different ways. This account comes from an extraordinary illuminated manuscript, the Libro de los Juegos, or Book of Games, compiled for Alfonso X, El Sabio, the Wise, King of Castile, and completed at the Royal Scriptorium in 1283. Because of the close ties between this kingdom and the Muslim polities of Al-Andalus, and Alfonso's well-documented campaign to translate Arabic texts into the Castilian vernacular, this compendium is very likely to preserve oral and written gaming traditions passed down for centuries. For example, it includes the earliest known description of backgammon, as well as an illustration and description of Nine Men's Morris, a game similar to tic-tac-toe and dating back at least to ancient Rome, where it was popular among soldiers and common people because the board could be quickly sketched in the dirt, and any small objects could be used as playing pieces. This deluxe codex begins with a story honoring the genealogy of chess, which is said to have been invented by an Indian philosopher king, a more plausible version of the tale related by Jacopo, who had also stressed the game's moral and political uses. This manuscript features more than 100 illustrated chess problems and solutions, as well as variants for multiple players, including a game of astronomical chess played on a special board representing the zodiac. In its entirety, then, the book reflects Alfonso's fascination with gaming as a dialectical exercise that pits a player's intelligence and skill against the forces of fortune and fate, as well as the wiles of his opponent. For the many medieval critics of gaming, however, there was no such sophisticated dialectic to justify play. Dice, cards, and other games were condemned as blasphemous pastimes that subverted the order of God's creation and made a mockery of church doctrine. This was a favorite topic in the preaching of a fiery 15th-century Franciscan reformer, Bernardino of Siena. In one vivid sermon, Fra Bernardino imagines a set of gamblers as participants in a diabolic black mass. The priest is the devil himself, and his missile is a set of dice whose markings are made with his own excrement. The playing cards are the devil's breviary. Just look at them. Clubs, weapons wielded by crazy savages, cups for drunkards, coins for the greedy, and swords for killers. The two-headed kings and the queens are assorted lords of misrule, turning the world upside down. Rather than offering prayers, gamers sigh for their losses. Instead of taking communion in the Eucharist, they become drunk. Cries of glory to God are drowned out by the groans of losers and the shouts of, I win! And when the unholy mass has ended, Bernardino warns, you will see the evil you have done and may, rather than living in Christ, kill yourself in despair. It was thus the unholy passions aroused by gambling, as well as the iniquities of gambling and greed, that aroused the preacher's ire and concern. A manuscript illumination from this same period captures the mood of a dice game that has clearly inspired intense emotions among its onlookers and players, at least one of whom seems about to lose his shirt. Dice are not medieval inventions. They are as old in one form or another as civilization. But cards for gaming and divination do appear to be a medieval innovation, beginning in China around the 9th century and making their way to Western Asia by the 11th. Examples from medieval Persia suggest that there were a range of different suits or patterns, with 12 cards originally in each. 10 pip cards and 2 court cards, usually a king and vizier, as in contemporary chess, sets from the region. The oldest surviving deck, dating from the early 15th century and made in Egypt, shows that each suit had by then come to include 13 cards, just like modern decks, with a third figure, the vizier's deputy, among the court cards. The four most common suits, cups, swords, coins and batons, are still found in some European traditions and are also familiar from modern tarot cards. This word, from the Italian tarocci, whose etymology is obscure, was originally another type of gaming deck, supplemented by additional cards painted with elaborate allegorical or astrological scenes. First documented in northern Italy, these decks became known as triumphi, or in English, trumps. Until the invention of printing, which enabled the mass production of cards, to the horror of clerical critics, decks would have been specially commissioned and produced for individual patrons. A surviving account from the allied duchies of Brabant and Luxembourg records, with apparent disapproval, that the duke and duchess had paid a sum amounting to the price of eight and a half sheep for a mere deck of cards. The oldest extant European sets are the deluxe remnants of some 15 incomplete decks that were made in the mid-15th century for Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, whom a contemporary source credits with having invented novum quodum exquisitum triumforum genus, a rather new and exquisite kind of trumps. Cards from these decks are now dispersed among many public and private collections, and they feature designs resembling the arcana of modern tarot decks, death, the emperor and empress, the fool, the knight of cups, and so on. The earliest printed decks, not surprisingly, were manufactured in some of the first German towns to set up printing presses and revealed that many of the Arabic, Persian, Latin suits had been replaced in northern Europe by hearts, shields, acorns, leaves, and bells. The oldest complete set of cards from this period is the Flemish hunting deck, hand-drawn rather than printed, with the suits all featuring hunting themes, horns, leashes and collars for hounds, and nooses for game. Meanwhile, as in chess, the Christian court cards, vizier, had become the queen, and his deputy, the knave, or jack. There isn't space here to detail or even name all of the local gaming variants and outdoor seasonal sports that develop throughout the medieval world and that are still the traditional focus of regional festivals and heritage reenactments like the Highland Games of Scotland. The very fact that communities cherish their own forms of play or house rules that govern local varieties of sport is a testament to the enormous importance of play in the life of every society. And while not all of the games people played during the Middle Ages were medieval in origin, it is thanks to medieval sources and surviving artifacts that we know so much about the history of pre-modern ludii. Not incidentally, it is thanks to a medievalist, the Dutch historian Johan Huizinga, that we have recognized scholarly disciplines such as game studies, game theory and the history of sport, all derived from his massively influential book Homo Ludens, first published in Dutch in 1938. As its title suggests, Huizinga regarded the species Homo, human, to be more accurately characterized as ludens, playing, rather than sapiens, understanding or reasoning. This is, as he argued, because play is older than culture and therefore more elemental to the human condition than other attributes that have been adduced as essential to human survival, such as speech. Play, Huizinga insists, constitutes its own form of life, not real life or ordinary life, but a state of freedom and creativity that is ultimately the generator of all art and of all that is good in human society. As he put it, civilization, quote, does not come from play like a baby detaching itself from the womb. It arises in play and as play and never leaves it. What better way to describe the longevity and endurance of the games we still play?