Ancient history of Europe from 5000 BCE to 44 BCE

Welcome from this monumental Minoan-like ruins in ancient Kerkira island in Greece. Here I will try to explain you whole European history from the fourth millennium BC to the first year AD. These four millennia of ancient European history are fascinating and are creating the shape of later Europe. So I will try to explain you how the old stone age cultures disappeared, what caused them to disappear, how the new bronze era emerged and then finally we will discuss the iron era and these very profound consequences of this new adventure, all of this new discovery, new weapon types, new warfare styles and I will try to explain you all the history speaking not only about this very well-known ancient civilizations like Greece, later Rome, but I will cover all Europe and will try to explain all the cultures in whole Europe and in the end I will try to explain you how it came in very dramatic circumstances that small city Rome became a hegemon leader of all Europe. Stay with me, this is Ziemowit about history and today we will cover ancient history, this is chapter one. This tale will be divided into three parts, old stone age Europe, later bronze age and iron age will be the final chapter of this video. And now I would like to describe old stone age Europe. I will cover four most important cultures that shaped the old Europe that was present seven, six thousand years ago. The first very important culture was Vinca culture in Balkans. They had very sophisticated ceramics, they even were able to use copper for their tools and jewelry and they were very mysterious because in very very ancient times when ancient Egypt and Babylon was starting to become a civilization here in Balkans, in Europe, also very complex society of Vinca culture undoubtedly was present and they disappeared very long time ago, four thousand years BC. We don't know what exactly caused this culture to disappear. Vinca people also invented their own unique style of writing and scientists argue if this is the first sign of alphabet in human history or it is not the first writing and the Sumerians and Egypt are the first to develop writing. But of course Balkan scientists argued that these Vinca tablets found in village Gradesnica in present-day Bulgaria are the first writing evidence of humankind. But in the same time, around four thousand years BC, another very important culture started in Europe and this was the culture of the great megalithic structures. And this culture covered a lot of territories from Ireland in the west to Poland in the east, from Scotland and Scandinavia in north to Malta in the Mediterranean Sea in the south. So this was very big and important culture. We don't know how much these people felt unification, how much they feel to be one nation, but for sure there are some common elements of their culture. For sure this stone age civilization to be very advanced in terms of social development and organization, because they were able to build this great monument of stone. The most popular is of course Stonehenge in England, but there were hundreds of monuments like this across Europe in time of this old stone megalithic culture period. And other very important culture was Tripoli culture in present-day Ukraine. And this was also a very amazing culture, because for example they built a great city in which probably even 10 000 people were living. And this city was without walls, without any fortifications and archaeologists found very few evidence of using weapons by these people. So it may be very peaceful, very pacifistic even society that was ruled by. And here is another hypothesis that this old Neolithic Europe was led by women, because this lack of warfare, lack of fortifications not only in Tripoli culture, but also in the big megalithic culture in Western Europe. There are very few evidence of any warlike activity. So Maria Gimbutas, an archaeologist from Lithuania, came with a theory that this old Europe was led by women. And we can argue about this, because in fact we don't know how this political structure looked like in this time, in this very ancient times. But it may be some case. Another very important culture is Funnelbeaker culture in present Poland, Denmark and part of Germany. And they also created very sophisticated pottery. They also had very good art and we can see that they were not only focused on living day-to-day, but they have some vision about afterlife, they have some need for aesthetic experience. So the art of... you can see mostly the pottery, but not only. So this is very interesting that here, very far in the north, in the same time when Egypt and Babylon was starting their existence, also here were present sophisticated cultures with very nice art and with for sure some level of advancement in social development. But we cannot say much more, because the evidence are much more scarce. Because, most of all, because of the type of terrain on which they were living. Because, for example, soil in northern Europe is very bad to preserve any natural materials. And on the other side, if you bury something in a sand in Egypt, the sand is very dry and the temperature is good. So these are very good conditions to preserve things for thousands of years. In northern Europe this wet soil with a lot of natural habitats in it is destroying almost all evidences, except stone and pottery. After burning pottery is also hard like stone. Even metal have very hard time in this soil. So there are much, much more, much fewer evidences of this. But despite all that, we have very interesting finding from Bronoczyce in Poland. This little clay cup is dated 3400 BCE and it's the first sign in the when someone depicted a cart or wagon with four wheels. Maybe this Polish village was one of the first who invented wheel and invented carts and wagons and oxes carrying these wagons. This finding is also associated with Funnel Beaker archaeological culture. And now how the old Stone Age Europe ended. This is very important event. Maybe the most important event in all European history. This event took place around 2700 BCE when there was great invasion from the east. People from the culture called Yamanaya, Proto-Indo-Europeans, came to Europe from the east and they conquered almost all the continent in the next few hundred years. Why Indo-Europeans were so able to conquer whole old Europe? First of all because of horses. Indo-Europeans were first to master horseback riding. They were very good riders. They were able to crush these old European civilizations because they were fighting on foot. And advantage that horse gave them was so colossal that in the field of battle they were totally unable to stand against them. This was the first very important factor. But not only. The second was early usage of bronze. And of course bronze is much more better for fighting than neolithic stone weapons. But bronze is also much more hard to craft and to create good weapons. So this bronze age started with Indo-Europeans was very slowly approaching Europe because for the first centuries bronze was very sparse and also it was co-existent with a lot of stone tools still for even 1000 years later. And Indo-Europeans had also different type of political organization. They were very patriarchal. The strong leadership of men is very clearly seen in their actions. And they were very warlike. They were ambitious, aggressive, expansionist. And all this was very different to the old Europe that they conquered. The first archaeological sign of this European expansion in Europe is corduroy culture. Also known as battle axe culture. Because they created extraordinary number of battle axes. And as I told you Indo-European people were much more warlike than previous old European nations. Let's say so. And in the consequence as we can see today from for example genetic samples almost all people in Europe have Indo-European genes. And these old European genes are very rare today. But we are saying about haplogroup Y male haplogroup. But female haplogroups of course are present. Because Indo-Europeans mostly kill men and take women as their wives. So the women's haplogroups, mitochondrial haplogroups are still present in Europe. But Y the man haplogroup is mostly Indo-European. Indo-Europeans are all nations of later Europe. Except Basques in Spain. They are the only important old European nation in Europe. Also some inhabitants of Sardinia are mostly old Europeans. The rest Celts, Germans, Germanic tribes, all Germanic tribes, Slavs, Balts, Italians, Greeks. All of them are Indo-Europeans. And this starts a new era of European history. The era of Indo-European history. Indo-Europeans brought with them also their language. So today all European languages are Indo-European languages. And also as I said Indo-Europeans. Because the same core words are present in ancient Hindi language. And that's why few hundred years ago some researchers thought that there must be a connection between India and Europe. And this connection was of course the great step and this Indo-European culture that started on the great step and expanded west to Europe and southeast to India. And this Indo-European culture has also very common gods. The most important god of thunder, god of sky was Thor in Germanic mythology, was Zeus in Greek mythology, was Jupiter in Roman mythology, was Perun in Slavic mythology, was Perkun in Baltic mythology and also was Taranis in Celtic mythology and famous Indra in India. This Indo-European people shared some common cultural core. And this core was present for another thousands of years in Europe. They then created a culture called Corded Ware culture. And later Urnfield's culture in Central Europe emerged. And part of this culture was Lusitan culture in present-day Poland. And finally emerged first big European civilization. This European civilization was of course the Minoan civilization on Crete. And Crete was the main island for them and they expanded by sea. But they were mostly seafaring people who like islands. They don't like big continental mass of land. They only preferred islands. And they were growing very fast and they were very very highly developed. But they collapsed very rapidly. They collapsed because of one little little very important event. Around year 1600 BC great volcano Tera on Santorini island in Aegean Sea erupted. And this was the one of the biggest eruption in historical times. And this eruption created at first earthquake and great tsunami. This tsunami wave hit Crete which is only about 100 kilometers far from Santorini. And it wiped out all settlements on the coast. And as I told you this Minoan civilization was mainly on the coast because they were sea-loving people. So their ships were destroyed, their buildings were destroyed and of course most important thing a lot of people were slain by the wave. And then there was not the end of their trouble. Because this great eruption caused nuclear winter, volcanic winter. Because the amount of ash was so big that for another years sky was covered with ash. And the sunlight wasn't able to pass through this thick layer of ash. So the climate changed. The temperature was much lower and they were starving. And this was the beginning of the end of Minoan civilization. They were trying to live for another 100 years but then Mekanians from Greece came and they crushed Crete. And they conquered and this was the complete end of the Minoan civilization. It was about 1450 years BCE. After few hundred years when the civilization of Mediterranean Sea were able to repair after this great explosion on Santorini new threat came to them. And this was very important factor changing the shape of Mediterranean world. I'm talking about invasion of so-called sea people. The sea people were mostly tribes, very expansionist tribes from present-day Balkans. I don't believe these theories that says that they were from Sicily or Sardinia. Because in Anatolia and in Balkans they were the first to master iron working. And they were the first to enter Iron Age. And these new weapons gave them great advantage over other still Bronze Age civilizations. So they embark on these ships. They were very well organized. They were very well commanded. And they made a series of invasions in 12th century BCE. And they were invading present-day Greece. They destroyed the Mekanian civilization. They also attacked Hattid Empire in Anatolia. And they almost crushed it completely. They invaded present-day Palestine. And the people Philistines created the name Palestine for this region. And also they were trying to conquer Egypt. But Pharaoh Ramses was able to stand and defend his country against them. But the Egyptian sources are the most important written sources from this period of time that put some light on the advance of sea people. The sea people show us that not only this south Mediterranean was full of civilizations. But also the Balkans and other northern territories were also very advanced in their technology, in their warfare and in their political organization also. The other evidence for this political organization, if the invasion of sea people is not enough for you, is the Battle of Tholens in 13th century BCE. We have great battle in present-day northeast Germany on the river Tholens. And in this battle thousands of warriors stand against each other and fought. So how big political organizations had to stand on both sides to create such a big well-equipped and professional armies? And even DNA samples from the scorpses of Tholens battle show us that the variety of genes was very big and that these warriors were not only local warriors. They were maybe mercenaries even from the south part of Mediterranean Sea. So the scale of this battle was very big and we don't know who, for what and with who was fighting and who won. We don't know anything. We just see the evidence of big political organizations fighting against each other in the north, in the wild north. And you may think that northern Europe was very primitive in this time. For sure not. Another evidence. When Phoenicians start to colonize the Mediterranean basin, they mainly colonized Africa, northern Africa, but they also colonized Spain and they were sending their ships to northern Europe. They for sure sailed to Brittany and probably they also sailed to Scandinavia. In Brittany they brought tin to make bronze equipment and also they bought amber from the Baltic Sea because only the Baltic Sea in Europe is a place where amber is existing. So they were swimming very far distances to get these very precious stones. As you can see, this world was very advanced. The trade connections were very long and the trade was very important. A lot of people were able to buy luxury products, not only from the southern civilizations like Egypt and Hittites and Babylon, but also in the north we can find some imports from the south passed there by the Phoenician traders, which were sailing all around Spain and through Atlantic Ocean to reach Brittany. So thinking about ancient Europe should be thinking about very advanced people that we don't have much evidence about their life. So it's very crowded in history, but for sure they were not primitive. And after this invasion of sea people, we have a period of dark ages in Europe because in Greece civilization collapsed and we have no written evidence about any important events. Only this gave a birth to another period of history, the birth of new nations, new civilizations, new cultures. And I'm speaking about, for example, Etruscan civilization in northern Italy, about great Greek colonization that took place in 7th, 6th and 5th century BCE. The Greeks colonized almost all Mediterranean basin and even the basin of Black Sea was also very densely colonized by the Greeks. This is also a time where Celtic civilization started. They first started in the central Europe, then expanded west to France, Brittany, Ireland, even Spain. And Celtic war will be very important factor of Europe and it will shape the history of this continent. Also, it is a time when Germanic tribes will start to invite Europe from the north. Their cradle was in South Scandinavia and through present-day Denmark they expanded to northern Germany and then to present-day Poland. And step by step they will take a lot of territories in this region. The 7th century was also the birth of Greek democracy, an extraordinary event in world history. The inhabitants of Greek polis are gradually removing the monarchs from the power and switching to a system of government in which every free man can take part in political life, decide about war and peace, and take responsibility for these decisions. Even in old Homer's epics like Iliad and Odyssey, gatherings of warriors are described, which although not democratic in the full sense, introduce the idea of collective discussing and important matters. Circa 650 BC, a political system with elements of collective decision-making called gerosia is created in Sparta. In 621 BC, in Athens, Dracon codifies the law, which is the first step toward equality before the law, the foundation of democracy. Although his law was very strict, it was a big step forward toward a society with political system based on law instead of, for example, violence. 6th century BC is also a time of very important event. In 530, Cyrus the Great, creator of great Persian empire, dies and we have the biggest empire on earth up to this time built by Cyrus. This empire will influence the history of world and also the history of Europe, especially Greece, Balkans and the Great Steppe. Because, of course, Persians, Persian kings were known as the kings of kings and they wanted everyone on whole earth to acknowledge their rule and their power. And they cannot stand that someone in Greece is ruling on their own and is not sending tribute and is not seeing them as kings of kings. But they will try to conquer Greece in 5th century, but still in 6th century, in year 513, Darius, king of Persia, will try to conquer Great Steppe. Because Scythians were also very independent nomadic tribe living in the Great Steppe. And as Cyrus the Great was slain fighting with Scythians, Darius, 17 years later, wanted to show that he's bigger than Cyrus and he can win with Scythians. So he moved to Europe, he conquered Thracia, present-day Bulgaria, and then he marched north, crossed Danube river and then on the Great Steppe of present-day Ukraine to crush the Scythians. But he was completely unable to achieve this because Scythians know that the territory is very vast and the problem with food is very big for such a great army that Darius is leading with him. They were using guerrilla warfare and finally Darius had to withdraw without any success. So great empire, the biggest empire of present world, was unable to conquer this nomadic Scythic people living in the Eastern European Steppe. Fifth century is the age of great struggle between Persia and Greece. Persians will try to conquer this small, very important region and the Greeks will very heroically fight against them. And of course, all you know, the first stage of this battle was in 490 when Persians make a descent in Attica near Athens and Athenian army defeated them on their Marathon village. And 10 years later, great Persian army crossed the Bosphorus strait and then marched north and attacked from present-day Macedonia on Greece. And in 480 Greeks were heroically fighting Persians in Thermopylae. Of course, they lose and then Persian army conquered Athens, they burned the city. But few months later, near Salamina, great Persian fleet was destroyed by the Greeks and therefore the situation of Persians was very hard because they had problems with supplies. So they left part of their army and this occupying army was in the next year under Plataea defeated by united Greeks. And this was the start of great struggle between Greece and Persia and the most important power in Greece will be Athens, who created a union that united a lot of small cities and they were trying to fight together against the Persians. And they will do it with different success. Most important was the Greek cities in today Turkey, today in western Turkey, because all this coast was Greek and Greek cities were abandoned there. And there were a lot of Greek cities there and they wanted protection against Persians and Athens were trying to give them this protection. But on the other side of the Mediterranean Sea, in this time, was also a very important battle. Battle of Kyme in 474, when Etruscan fleet was crushed by the Greeks. Etruscans wanted to expand their influence on Athenian peninsula, present-day Italy, and they wanted to expand south and Greeks stopped them. And this battle of Kyme was turning point for their expansion and also it gave some opportunity for Rome to rise in political independence, because before Etruscans were dominating in Italy. However, when in the second half of 5th century BC Persia had problems with a rebellion in Egypt and the Greeks grew in power, the fight for hegemony over Hellas began. All started in 437 BC. Kerkira, Greek island where I am now, had its colony Epidemnus a few hundred kilometers to north on today's coast of Albania. This colony had a problem with local Illyric tribes, but since the mother city was not willing to help, they asked Corinth for help. The Corinthians saw this as a chance to expand their influence in the area and sent help. Kerkira, seeing that Corinth was interfering in their affairs, now sent their own fleet and army to Epidemnus to expel the intruders from the Peloponnese. A war broke out between Corinth and Kerkira and when the Corinthian fleet moved north, it was crushed by the inhabitants of Kerkira in the naval battle. In 433 Athens also sided with Kerkira and Corinth, feeling very cornered in the situation, called Sparta for help. The Spartans demanded hard terms to the Athenians that they were impossible to fulfill, including the termination of Athenian maritime league. And so a great war broke out, taking place in main Greece but also in numerous colonies, especially in Sicily. During this war, about 50 battles took place, mostly navy clashes. The final was grim to Athens. In 404 Sparta captured the city, they destroyed its mighty walls, connecting the city with Piraeus harbor. The backbone of Athens was broken and Sparta gained hegemony over Greece for coming decades. In the beginning of 4th century BC we have very important event in present-day Italy. Small city Rome will conquer important Etruscan city Veii. And as they conquered the city, they razed it and they occupied all their lands, so they made their first attempt to create an empire. This was first very small but very important expansion of ancient Rome. And few years later, after their victory over Veii, Celtic army under Brennus came and besieged Rome. And they crushed it and only the Capitolian hill in Rome was standing against Celts. And the siege was several months long, but finally Celts came back after receiving a lot of gold from Romans, but they left them without destroying them completely. And this event was very very important for the Roman history, because if Brennus and his warriors breach the walls of Capitol and if they slay all the Romans there, we will never hear about Roman empire. There will be no expansion, the farther expansion of Rome and Rome will end its history there. But they managed to survive and they made something very important. They created reforms that gave people a lot of land in exchange for their military service. And for the next years, Romans gave to their citizens this land they conquered on Veii and it was the beginning of their both economical and militaristic power. A turning point in world history occurred in 336 BC. Philip II of Macedon is murdered in Greece and thanks to this event his teenage son Alexander can begin his reign. The ambitions of this boy, in my opinion the greatest leader in human history, reached heaven. In a few years he gathered a solid army and attacked the largest empire that had existed on earth up to that time. People were shaking their heads, but in only a few years he conquered all Persia. In this way he began the period of Greek hegemony over the world and the Hellenization of the East. Meanwhile, in parallel with this great war in Italy, little Rome was fighting its own small extreme fierce war with the Italian Samnids. In 321 it seems that fall of Rome was very near. In the Cundi Valley the Roman army was surrendered by Samnids and had to choose between death and surrender. The Romans chose shame. They were plundered, stripped of their old clothes and sent home only in pants. The Romans once again did what was their great advantage. They drew conclusions for their defeats and 17 years later ended the war with the Samnids with the decisive victory. In the 3rd century BC we have the period of Macedonian domination over Greece. Because, of course, after Alexander's death his empire immediately split, but this part in Macedonia was very strong still and they were trying to subdue other Greek states in the continental and in islands of the Aegean Sea. But also we will see stable growth of Rome that will try to conquer more and more territories in Italy, in present day Italy of course, and against it will stand great warrior, great warrior named Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and he will try to hold Romans in Italy. He will try to hold also Macedonians in Greece and he was trying, of course, to create his own great empire. At the age of 18 he took part in the biggest battle of flirt surgery at Ipsos in Asia Minor. Great armies of diadochs clashed. Pyrrhus, despite showing extraordinary courage during this battle, could not change its fate. Antagonius, who was the leader, fell and with him most of his army. Later, for three years, Pyrrhus was even the king of Macedonia as he was a distant cousin of Alexander the Great. But he was thrown out from this position by Lysimachus, one of the diadochs. Still seeking military glory, he went to Grecia Magna, as southern Italy was called, because this land was full of Greek colonies. The Greeks had a problem with growing Roman state, so Pyrrhus led an army which, although victorious over Romans several times, was unable to defeat them. Hence the saying Pyrrhic victory, a success that, beside costs, does not bring any positive effect. Unable to defeat Rome, Pyrrhus returned to Greece to try to reconquer Macedonia for himself. And it was there that his unfortunate death occurred, in Argos in Teloponnese in 272 BC. Pyrrhus' death was great news for the Romans, who in the following years gradually expanded their possessions in southern Italy with the important city of the region Tarentum. The first Punic war began in 264 BC with a dispute over the city Messana. At first, the Carthaginians occupied the city in alliance with the king of Syracuse, another powerful trading city in Sicily. Soon the Romans sent their troops to Messana and captured the city, and after this event, seeing the superiority of Rome, Syracuse went to their side. The following years, Rome spent on removing Carthaginians from entire Sicily. And when the Romans finally did this in 256, they landed in Africa, but they suffered a severe defeat. And while returning to Italy, the remnants of Roman army were destroyed by the storm. The war ended in 241 with Carthage defeat. It lost all possessions in Sicily and had to pay a tribute to Rome. Sicily became the first Roman province. It wasn't long before Carthage, unable to expand its influence in Sicily, turned west, towards the Iberian Peninsula. There, they significantly expanded their influence, and it was clear that both sides are preparing for another war. The pretext was Hannibal's attack on Sagunt, a Greek colony allied with Rome, which was too Spanish for attacking an Iberian tribe allied with Carthaginians. The beginning of war was a daring march across the Alps of Hannibal's great army with war elephants, and then three great defeats of the Romans in Italy. Near the Trebia river, on banks of Lake Trasimeno, and the greatest in 216 at Cannae. Additionally, Hannibal formed an alliance with Macedonia against Rome. It seemed that the republic would soon collapse. Unable to deal with Hannibal in Italy, Rome deployed troops to Sicily and Spain, thus cutting off supplies for Hannibal's army and preventing him from delivering military reinforcements. Finally, in 207, Hasdrubal tried to move into Italy to help his brother, but was defeated by the Romans and died. Seeing no chance of victory, Hannibal left Italy. And now Romans landed in Africa, where at Zana in 202 Scipio Africanus defeated the Carthaginian army and ensured victory for Rome. Carthage lost all its possessions outside Africa and had to pay a huge tribute to Rome and reduce its fleet to only 10 ships. After winning these two Punic wars, Rome was able to expand. And the first target was northern Italy, then southern Gallo, then Spain, Illyria, and then they had to fight with Greeks. And the first very important event was war with Macedonia and battle near Pydna in present-day Greece in 168 BC. In this battle on the one side we had new way of warfare. Roman legions armed with gladius swords, big shields, well-armored infantry, and pilum. And on the other side we have Macedonian phalanga with sarissa spears, with small shields, and with few armor. And Macedonians were crushed in this battle. And it was the end of Hellenistic dominance in Europe and also the end of phalanga as the best way of fighting. Now the Roman legion will be the best weapon to win wars in Mediterranean. So in 168 Macedonia fell under Roman rule and 20 years later whole Greece was also a Roman colony. And then they can attack Carthage and finally conquer Africa after the Punic war. Carthage after losing the war with the Rome and when it could not longer arm itself invested everything in its economy. She was shining pearl on the shores of Mediterranean sea and her wealth aroused the envy of the Romans. That's why they come up with absurd demands and send them to Carthage. Among other requests they wanted to took 300 children of the aristocracy as hostages and also banned the Carthaginians from setting near the sea. The Carthaginians killed the envoys who came with such abusive demands and so the third Punic war began. Romans landed in Africa and started to besiege Carthage but they were too sure of their supremacy so instead of victory they gain more and more casualties. Then Romans changed their commanders and finally in 146 Carthage was captured and destroyed. And once great Phoenician empire collapsed. And then Rome had to fight another enemy in the east king of Pontus Mitridates the sixth. The last king of Pergamon Attalos the third died in 133 BC and left his entire kingdom in his last will to Roman republic. So Rome quite easily captured the rich areas of western Asia minor but ambitious king of Pontus Mitridates was not willing to watch idly as Romans put their grasp on Asian land. He waited for the right opportunity and act but more of that in a moment because this rapid expansion of Roman empire in the second century BC led to very big inner tensions because they were people who gain a lot of wealth and a lot of political power because of these conquests and others that gain nothing or even suffer because of them. And they tried some reforms but the reformators were slain so after a few peaceful attempts to change something in this system great bloody civil war erupted in 92 BC. It was a war with allies. Italian allies of Rome took weapons and revolted against Rome because they wanted very much to change this system. The system in which they were forced to send their people, their warriors, their soldiers for the wars of Rome and they were gaining almost nothing in return. So they wanted equal rights as Roman citizens and this war was very bloody and it was very close that Rome would lose the war and it would collapse and the whole empire would collapse and the course of future history will be completely different. And this was a perfect moment for Mitridates VI to attack in the east. He marched quickly and took all former Pergamon kingdom and then crossed Bosphorus and took Macedonia and Greece. In this situation Romans had to quickly end the conflict in Italy so they agreed on all demands their allies wanted. They gave them Roman rights and quickly started to repair the falling empire. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix an outstanding Roman leader who was famous in the war with the allies was sent to Greece. Now he defeated the Pontic army and regained Romans eastern provinces. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was almost deified as the one who saved the republic. And after this civil war two great generals were so famous and so eager to take over Rome that another war started. War between them two and finally Sulla won and he was the first dictator in Roman history and this course shows us that the republic was not sufficient to rule over such vast territory of Europe. Republic was good for a small city state or a small country but as Rome expanded rapidly this republican system of governance was not sufficient and this Sulla dictatorship was the first sign that something has to change and it will change in next decades. Because even though Sulla gave power to the senate and retired the avalanche could not be stopped. Julius Caesar will soon come to independent power after his bloody Gallic campaign after which he will be stabbed to death and these events will put Rome on the path to a long civil war as a result of which the republic will be finally liquidated. But I will tell you about this in the next episode. Thank you very much for your attention and see you soon!