Persia — The Empire That Ruled the World

Most people don't know much about ancient Persia. In fact, we probably picture it more through movies and pop culture than from anything we learned in school. Rome, Greece, even Egypt. Those civilizations get plenty of attention. But what was going on in the East? That part of history often gets overlooked. And yet, ancient Persia was once the largest empire the world had At its peak, nearly half the world's population lived under the rule of Persian kings. So let's take a look back through a few centuries of Persian history and try to learn a little more, beyond what the textbooks usually cover. So where does our knowledge of the Persians actually come from? Mostly from three Greek writers. Herodotus, Xenophon, and Ctesias. But there's a catch. The Greeks were rivals of the Persians and didn't really understand their culture. A lot of what they wrote is biased or just plain inaccurate. Even the names of Persian rulers come to us through a Greek filter, and they don't sound anything like they did in the original language. The Greek alphabet didn't even have letters for some Persian sounds. For example, Cyrus was actually Kurush, Darius was Dariavaush, and Xerxes was Xayarsha. And they weren't really kings in the Greek sense, they were shahs. Luckily, we have more than just Greek accounts to rely on. One of the most valuable sources is the Royal Archive at Persepolis, which holds thousands of clay tablets written in cuneiform. These tablets are packed with economic records that give us a much clearer picture of how the Persian empire really worked. The Persians, also known as the Parsi, were an Indo-Iranian people. Alongside their close relatives, the Medes, they migrated from the regions of modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan toward the richer lands of Mesopotamia at the end of the Bronze Age. They called themselves Ariana, a name that still echoes today in the word Iran. Interestingly, the word Pers in their language meant warrior or strong man. At the time, the Persians were pastoral nomads, but not in the way we typically imagine. They practiced vertical nomadism, moving with the seasons along mountain slopes, spending summers in highland valleys and winters in the lower foothills where the grass was lusher. This style of migration can still be seen in some regions of the Caucasus today. Their way of life was simple and rugged. They ate modestly, rarely drank alcohol, and were renowned horsemen. Unlike the people of Mesopotamia, the Persians wore trousers, ideal for riding, and distinctive pointed hats called tiaras. They also stood out physically from the native peoples of the Fertile Crescent, taller in stature and lighter in complexion. In the 7th century BC, the Persians captured the Elamite city of Anshan. From that point on, all Persian kings would begin their titles with King of Anshan. In the 6th century BC, Cyrus II came to power. The man who would later be known as Cyrus the Great. At the time, the Persians were still vassals of the Median Empire. But Cyrus led a rebellion against the Median king, Astyages. Several powerful Median clans, dissatisfied with Astyages' rule, defected to Cyrus. With their support, he defeated the Median army. On the site of the decisive battle, where Astyages' forces were crushed, Cyrus founded the city of Pasargadae, which would become the new capital of his growing empire. But Cyrus didn't stop after seizing power in Media. He launched a series of rapid military campaigns, conquering Parthia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Elam, Lydia, and Ionia. Some regions, like Hyrcania and Cilicia, submitted to Persian rule voluntarily. With much of the region under his control, Cyrus then set his sights on the dominant superpower of Mesopotamia, the Neo-Babylonian Empire. According to legend, the Babylonian king Nabonidus had angered the chief god Marduk. Marduk, it was said, turned to Cyrus and called on him to come to Babylon, depose Nabonidus, and take his place. In reality, when the Persian army approached Babylon, the gates were opened without a fight. The city's nobility, disillusioned with Nabonidus' rule, surrendered the city to Cyrus and welcomed him in. Cyrus proved to be not only a brilliant conqueror, but also a shrewd statesman. He treated conquered peoples with surprising leniency, provided they didn't put up fierce resistance. Rather than ruling with an iron fist, Cyrus preferred to rely on local elites. Defeated kings were often spared and even granted high-ranking positions within his empire. He generally avoided interfering in the internal affairs of subject nations. Where possible, local officials remained in their posts after conquest, which helped minimize resentment among the ruling classes and reduced the likelihood of rebellion. Cyrus also freed many peoples who had been displaced by the Babylonians and Assyrians, among them, the Jews. He allowed them to return to their homelands and even provided funding for the reconstruction of the temple in Jerusalem. That's why he's remembered with great respect in the Bible. The truth was, Persians made up only a small minority of the empire, roughly 1 in 20 subjects, so Cyrus couldn't rely on brute force to maintain control. Instead, he built a system based on tolerance, cooperation, and local autonomy. After conquering Babylon, Cyrus turned his attention to securing the northern borders of his empire from raids by the Scythian tribes, but this campaign would prove fatal. In a fierce battle against the Massagetae, led by Queen Tomyris, the Persian army was nearly wiped out, and Cyrus himself was killed in action. After his death, power passed to his son, Cambyses. Almost immediately, many of the lands Cyrus had conquered rose in rebellion. Cambyses spent the next few years on military campaigns to re-establish control. Once order was restored, Cambyses launched an invasion of Egypt. He captured Memphis, took the Pharaoh prisoner, and brought both Egypt and Libya under Persian rule. His next ambitions were to conquer Carthage and Cush, but those plans met setbacks. The Cushite campaign failed due to severe supply shortages, and the invasion of Carthage was called off altogether because the Phoenicians, key to providing a fleet, refused to fight against their fellow countrymen. Meanwhile, another revolt broke out in Babylon. Cambyses set out to suppress it, but fell ill on the journey and died before he could return. Power was supposed to pass to Cambyses' brother, Smyrdas, but a man named Darius stepped in. He claimed that the person posing as Smyrdas was actually an imposter, a magus named Gaumata, and that the real Smyrdas had been secretly killed by Cambyses long before. Using this accusation, Darius seized the throne. Darius was not a descendant of Cyrus, so to legitimize his rule, he declared himself a descendant of Achaemenes, the great-grandfather of Cyrus the Great. From that point on, the royal line became known as the Achaemenid dynasty. Like Cambyses, Darius spent much of his early reign putting down revolts across the empire. He launched an unsuccessful campaign against the Scythians north of the Black Sea, added Thrace to the empire, formed an alliance with Macedonia, and fought against the Greeks, though the Greco-Persian wars are a topic for later. Darius is remembered less as a general, especially since he rarely commanded armies himself, and more as a great administrator. His legacy lies in the reforms and organization that helped shape the Persian empire into one of the most advanced states of the ancient world. To improve governance, Darius divided the empire into provinces called satrapies, each overseen by a governor known as a satrap. Satraps held civilian authority. They managed infrastructure, maintained roads and military depots, collected taxes, and oversaw justice. Initially, satraps also had military control within their regions. However, after several satrap-led uprisings, Darius stripped them of their military power and placed the armies under direct central command to prevent future rebellions. Darius introduced a standardized currency system, the gold derek. One gold derek was worth 20 silver sigloy. While coins themselves weren't a Persian invention, coinage had already appeared earlier in Lydia. It was under Darius that the concept of a universal medium of exchange spread widely across the empire. A Persian soldier's monthly pay was one derek. For context, a sheep cost about three sigloy and a sack of flour around two. Darius also oversaw the construction of an extensive network of paved roads. These roads allowed for the rapid movement of troops across the empire and boosted overland trade. The most famous of these routes, the royal road, connected the Aegean coast in Lydia to Susa, the ancient capital of Elam. Based on the vast network of imperial roads the Persians established an organized postal system. At regular intervals along the routes, relay stations were built. Thanks to this setup, messages could travel from one end of the empire to the other in just a few days, passed swiftly from one rider to the next. Darius also oversaw the construction of the first version of the Suez Canal. Though it didn't connect the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, it linked the Red Sea to one of the Nile Delta's branches. Even so, this achievement enabled navigation between the two seas and gave a major boost to maritime trade. Monumental construction flourished throughout the empire during Darius' reign. He made Persepolis, located near Pasargadae, the new ceremonial capital. In total, the Persian empire had five major capitals. Cyrus' capital, Pasargadae, Darius' Persepolis, the old Median capital, Ecbatana, the Elamite city of Susa, and, of course, Babylon. Under Darius, Persepolis became the empire's grandest city, home to massive construction projects like the Apadana, a grand audience hall. Craftsmen from all corners of the empire built elaborate structures, sculptures, and monuments. Just outside the cities, the Persians created lush gardens known in their language as paradida, a word that eventually gave us paradise. The backbone of the Persian army was the Immortals, an elite force of professional heavy infantry. Clad in armor and armed with spears, swords, and bows, this unit always maintained a constant strength of 10,000 men. There was fierce competition for a place in their ranks. Whenever a soldier was killed, retired, or incapacitated, he was immediately replaced, keeping the number steady. However, the name Immortals may be a mistranslation of a Persian word meaning companions, but thanks to Herodotus, the term Immortals stuck in historical literature. The Persian army's light infantry was made up of archers and slingers. Alongside them, the Persians fielded heavy cavalry, armed with spears and light cavalry equipped with javelins. Depending on the region of conflict, they also deployed auxiliary troops drawn from the many peoples within the empire. Egyptians, Babylonians, Syrians, Jews, Greeks, and others. In addition, the Persians frequently relied on mercenaries, especially Greeks and Scythians. Persians are often labeled as fire worshipers, but that's not quite accurate. They didn't worship fire itself. Their religion was an early form of Zoroastrianism known as Mazdaism. Unlike modern Zoroastrianism, this version wasn't strictly monotheistic. The Persians didn't deny the existence of other gods. They simply placed their god, Ahura Mazda, above all others. He was considered the god of gods, just as the Persian king was king of kings, or Shahanshah in their language. Within Mazdaism itself, there were also other divine figures. Mitra, the god of light and truth, Ahriman, the spirit of evil, Anahita, the goddess of fertility, and others. This form of belief is known as henotheism, recognizing many gods while giving primacy to one. Mazdaism was primarily the religion of the Persian, and some median elites. The Persians never tried to impose their faith on the peoples they ruled. Their empire was remarkably tolerant of religious diversity. Babylonian Marduk, Jewish Yahweh, Egyptian Amun, and Greek Zeus all had a place under Persian rule. The Persians also had a curious tradition for making decisions. According to their beliefs, rooted in Mazdaism, a person under the influence of alcohol could only speak the truth. So, when facing an important decision, they would first discuss it while drunk. The next day, they would reconsider the idea while sober. If it still seemed like a good decision, it was approved. If not, the whole process would start again. The Greco-Persian Wars began with a rebellion of the Greek colonies in Ionia. In 499 BC, the Ionian Greeks rose up against Persian rule. They were supported by Athens and by Greeks from the Aegean islands. Not only did they overthrow Persian authority, they even launched a raid on Sardis, the capital of the Lydian satrapy. The Greeks looted the city and burned it, destroying, among other things, the temple of Anahita. The rebellion lasted seven years before it was finally crushed by the Persians. In its aftermath, Persia sent envoys to many city-states across mainland and island Greece, offering a symbolic request for earth and water, a traditional gesture of submission to Persian rule. Many polis accepted the offer, but the two most powerful, Athens and Sparta, refused. In Sparta, the envoys were thrown into a well and told to find their earth and water there. In Athens, they were put on trial and executed. This enraged the Persians, who began preparing a punitive expedition. The Persian army landed in a coastal plain near the city of Marathon. From there, they intended to march inland and destroy Athens. But upon landing, they saw a Greek force already assembled at the far end of the plain. The Athenians had learned of the invasion and, rallying their allies, had marched to intercept the Persians. Despite outnumbering the Greeks by more than two to one, the Persians found themselves in a disadvantageous position. The Marathon plain sloped upward, and the Greeks were positioned at the higher end. Any Persian attack would have to be launched uphill. The Persian commander, Artafernus, hesitated, unwilling to advance from such a poor position. But the Greek general Miltiades was also in no rush to fight. He had just received a messenger from Sparta and was waiting for reinforcements. Eventually, Artafernus had an idea. If the Athenian army was at Marathon, then the city itself must be unprotected. He ordered a withdrawal to the ships, planning to sail around the coast and strike Athens while it lay undefended. At that moment, Miltiades made his move. He ordered a sudden attack. The Persians, caught off guard while reorganizing for departure, were thrown into chaos. The Greek assault shattered their lines, and panic spread through the Persian ranks. While many Persians managed to retreat to their ships and escape, the losses were devastating. About 7,000 elite troops and dozens of ships were lost. Greek casualties, by contrast, were minimal, around 150 men. Despite the defeat, Darius did not abandon his plans for revenge. However, he never got the chance. First, a revolt in Egypt diverted his attention, and not long after, he died. Darius' successor, Xerxes, assembled a massive army and marched toward Greece by land. Greek historians claimed his forces numbered a million men, though that figure is clearly exaggerated. Modern estimates suggest the army was closer to 200,000, still an enormous military force for the time. The Greeks decided to make their stand at the narrow pass of Thermopylae, which at that time was only a few dozen meters wide. Contrary to popular belief, it wasn't just the famous 300 Spartans who defended the pass. Several thousand soldiers from other Greek city states also took part. Nevertheless, the battle was lost. The Greeks held the Persians off for two days. On the third day, most of the Greek forces withdrew, fearing encirclement. Only the Spartan contingent and a handful of others chose to stay behind, numbering no more than 500 men. Against such overwhelming numbers, they couldn't hold the pass, and by the end of the day, they were surrounded and killed to the last. After this, the Persians advanced unopposed and reached Athens, only to find the city empty. The women and children had been evacuated to the Peloponnese, while the men had taken to the sea to confront the Persian navy. The two fleets met near the island of Salamis, in what would become the decisive naval battle of the Greco-Persian Wars. The Persians had the numerical advantage, but their ships were smaller and lighter. The Greek fleet, composed mainly of heavy triremes, managed to lure the Persian navy into the narrow strait between Salamis and the mainland. Once inside, the Persians lost their key advantage—maneuverability. The heavier Greek triremes struck with full force. The Persian fleet was devastated, losing around a third of its ships and retreating in panic and disorder. With their navy shattered, the Persian army lost its primary supply line. The Persians burned Athens, but soon began a retreat toward the Hellespont. That retreat quickly turned into a chaotic route. Several more battles followed, both on land and at sea, most of which ended in Greek victories. Eventually, the Persians were forced to agree to peace. Under its terms, they gave up control of all Aegean islands and the coast of Asia Minor. Though defeated on the battlefield, the Persians didn't abandon their goal of influencing or dominating the Greeks. They simply changed tactics, turning from military conquest to cultural influence and bribery. Many prominent Greek figures, including the famed orator Demosthenes, accepted Persian gold in exchange for promoting certain ideas or policies. But disaster for Persia would come not from Greece, but from an entirely unexpected direction. In the 4th century BC, King Philip II of Macedon united Greece under his rule and began preparing for a long-held dream, an invasion of Persia. But suddenly, he was dead, stabbed by his own bodyguard, Pausanias. The true motive for the assassination remains a mystery. Some say Pausanias was in love with Philip's wife. Others suspect the Persians orchestrated the killing to eliminate a threat. And still others suggest Philip's son Alexander may have been involved. The truth will likely never be known. One way or another, Philip was gone, and power passed to his 18-year-old son, Alexander. Alexander inherited a fully assembled invasion force, ready to march into Persia. And he wasted no time fulfilling his father's plan. Over the next 13 years, he swept through the Achaemenid Empire like a storm, never suffering a single defeat. The Persians had no effective answer to the Macedonian phalanx, a revolutionary military formation of the time, nor to Alexander's extraordinary tactical genius and uncanny luck. Time and again, he placed himself at the heart of the fiercest fighting, yet emerged with barely a scratch, or only light wounds. By 329 BC, after more than two centuries of existence, the Achaemenid Empire had ceased to exist. The Hellenistic Age had begun. But Persia's legacy didn't vanish. It lived on and evolved, first within the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, then in the Parthian Kingdom, later under the Sasanian dynasty, and beyond. Even today, the Persian language survives. And despite the dominance of Islamic rule in modern Iran, there are still communities that preserve the ancient Persian faith, Zoroastrianism.