History of the Celts: The Civilization That Gave Birth to Europe

European civilization cannot be imagined without the legacy of Celtic culture. This large group of peoples spread from Ireland to Turkey and, through assimilation, created the sociocultural foundation of Europe for many centuries. As peoples of the same Indo-European group, the Celts spoke similar languages and shared comparable religious beliefs, common traditions, material culture, and everyday life. Not much is known about the early history of the Celts. According to archaeological data, traces of early Celtic culture, dating back to the 8th through 5th century BCE, were first discovered near the Austrian village of Hallstatt in the northern Alps. This early Celtic culture received its name from the village, known as the Hallstatt culture. Artifacts from this culture have been found in modern-day Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic. Around 450 BCE, the Hallstatt culture evolved into the La Tène culture, named after a site in Switzerland where more advanced and richly decorated artifacts were discovered, indicating a transition of the Celts to a new level of development. This culture existed until at least the 1st century CE. Living in the valleys and foothills of the Alps, the early Celts built relatively small settlements, engaging in livestock farming and agriculture. However, their main occupation was the extraction of copper and tin. Access to valuable metal deposits in the mountains became the foundation of these tribes' prosperity. From copper and tin, the early Celts smelted bronze for tools, weapons, and ornaments. Gradually, the role of trade increased significantly. In addition to copper, tin, and finished bronze products, the early Celts also sold salt to their neighbors, an essential and expensive product used not only as seasoning, but also as a primary preservative. Prosperity from trade led to population growth and increased wealth. As a result, at a certain point, the Proto-Celts felt cramped in the Alpine foothills and began their expansion to the west, north, and east. Interestingly, the early Celts had already started working with iron at that time, but it did not replace bronze, which maintained its popularity for centuries. Thus, Celtic culture began to spread across vast territories of Europe. In the lands of modern France, Celtic tribes from the 8th century BC pushed out and assimilated the early inhabitants, the Ligurians and Iberians in the southeast, as well as various Neolithic groups throughout the rest of the territory. This led to the emergence of a region predominantly inhabited by Celts, Gaul. Around the 7th and 6th centuries BC, various Celtic tribes penetrated the Iberian peninsula, initially settling in the north and west, as well as in central regions. The Celts encountered local tribes, the Iberians, and other ancient inhabitants of the peninsula. In some areas, a mixed culture developed, such as the emergence of the Celtiberian tribe, which combined traits of both Celts and Iberians. Also, around the 6th century BC, the migration of Celts from continental Europe to the British Isles began. There, they encountered distant descendants of Neolithic tribes that had built Stonehenge thousands of years earlier. These were likely the Picts. They adopted many features of Celtic culture, even though they had lived in isolation for centuries, having moved to northern Scotland. The rest of the indigenous peoples blended into the Celtic population, some through peaceful cultural exchange, while others through military expansion. Archaeological evidence points to numerous intertribal conflicts, resulting in the establishment of Celtic tribes such as the Britons, Gauls, and others in most of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland by the 4th century BC. On the continent, the Celts rapidly spread along the Danube and Rhine rivers. In the north, in what is now the Czech Republic and Germany, the Celts had close contact with early Germanic tribes. There is archaeological evidence of trade and technological exchange. While there were clashes due to competition and cultural pressure, large-scale conflicts were largely avoided, at least in the early stages. In the east, the Celts settled in the region of southern Poland and built a fairly large settlement near Krakow. Another tribe settled in western Slovakia and in the Romanian region of Transylvania. Celtic groups such as the Taurasi also established fortified settlements in the mountain valleys of the Carpathians, particularly in western Ukraine. In the northeast, they began to encounter Baltic and Proto-Slavic groups. In the east, the Celts came into contact with the Scythians and Sarmatians, who controlled the steppe zone. These interactions appear to have been aggressive in nature. In Moravia, western Ukraine, and Transylvania, the Celts constructed a number of large fortresses, indicating intense military confrontations with local peoples. In the northern and central Balkans, Celtic tribes coexisted and sometimes clashed with the Illyrians and Thracians. Thanks to such rapid and extensive settlement across Europe, there were many cities that were founded by the Celts. For example, the French cities of Paris, Lyon, and Orleans, the Spanish cities of Salamanca and Lugo, the Swiss city of Geneva, the German city of Mainz, and the Austrian city of Vienna. All of them were Celtic settlements at the beginning of their history. Even cities that are not commonly associated with Celtic heritage unexpectedly turn out to be so. Budapest, Belgrade, Milan, London, and York. Despite being scattered across the map of Europe, these cities contain monuments of Celtic culture. For a certain period, the Celtic community of tribes became dominant in Europe in terms of area of distribution, but it never became politically dominant. Why? The territory inhabited by the Celts was never a single state. Moreover, it consisted of dozens of tribes and hundreds of chiefdoms and trading posts. Each tribe had its own name, its own goals, and unique characteristics. They were united by a general cultural similarity, but not by political interests, which led to regular internal conflicts. Archaeological research reveals such characteristics of the Celts. The first written mention of the Celts appears in the 6th century BCE. The ancient Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus wrote about them, using the term Keltoi to refer to the people living northwest of the Balkans in Central Europe. The origin of this term is unknown, but it was later used by Herodotus and, following Latinization, by Roman historians. Did the Celts have a common self-designation? Given the number of tribes, their areas of settlement, and the competition among them, it is unlikely, and if there was one, it remains unknown to us. The Celtic tribes established close and productive trade relations with the ancient Greeks and Etruscans. Hecataeus wrote about tribes living near the Greek colony of Massalia, which is modern-day Marseille. Herodotus recounted that Celtic peoples spread from the mouth of the Danube to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, confirming archaeological evidence. Thanks to this productive trade, goods from Mediterranean peoples reached the early Celts. For example, Corinthian and Etruscan pottery has been found in the rich burials of Celtic chieftains. Occasionally, Egyptian scarabs, Babylonian cylinder seals, and bronze and silver ornaments made in Phoenician style were also discovered. However, by the end of the 6th century BCE, tensions began to rise between the Greeks and the Celts. By the early 5th century BCE, this escalated into a series of armed conflicts with Massalia. The trade routes that connected the Celts with the Mediterranean were severed. During this period, the ancient mines in the foothills of the Alps finally began to be depleted. Trade across the Alps with the Etruscans declined. This prompted another more powerful impetus for Celtic migration. The pressing need for defense initiated a new trend, rapid development of fortifications. Walls began to be constructed, first from adobe bricks and later from stone. The Celts established Apida, fortified settlements with strong stone, wood, and clay walls, ditches, and complex architectural planning. Celtic society also became more complex. The tribes were led by elected kings or chieftains, chosen at general assemblies by the tribal aristocracy, which represented the next tier in the Celtic hierarchy. Druids and filly held a status roughly equal to that of the aristocracy. The druids combined the roles of priests, teachers, healers, and judges. The filly were influential in the realm of art, particularly poetry, which held sacred significance for the Celts. Below them in the hierarchy were free landowners and craftsmen, who enjoyed considerable respect among the Celts. Interestingly, merchants and blacksmiths were regarded as elites and were nearly on par with the aristocracy in terms of status. Below the landowners were dependent individuals who did not own land and rented plots for work. They were likely not slaves, contrary to claims made by ancient sources. In general, ancient authors often tried to depict the Celts as filthy barbarians. The reason for this lies in the rivalry, as the Celts were effective traders and formidable warriors on the battlefield. They nearly conquered all of Rome in 390 BC when the Celtic tribe of Sinones, led by Chieftain Brennus, captured the city. After their victory in the Battle of the Aulia, his warriors entered Rome and burned much of it. At that time, Rome was significantly less powerful, but the Celts' swift victory was still impressive. Only the Capitoline Hill was able to withstand the siege thanks to the heroic defense of the Romans. The Celts agreed to leave the city only after a massive ransom was paid. Following this defeat, Rome significantly modernized its army, which soon led to its peak of power. Meanwhile, ancient historians resorted to propaganda, portraying the Celts as dirty barbarians. Archaeology disputes this and shows that the Celts regularly bathed, valued cleanliness, and used intricately crafted combs. Their individualistic culture encouraged self-expression, particularly through clothing and jewelry, in which the Celts achieved significant successes. Both the Greeks and Romans were fair to the Celts when they described them as fearless and strong warriors, demonstrating ferocity not only in individual skirmishes but also in large-scale campaigns. In 280 BCE, a large group of Celtic tribes, migrating from Central Europe and led by another chieftain with the popular name Brennus, began an advance into the Balkans. Among the tribes were the Tektasidges, Talistobogii, and Trochmii. The Celts moved through the territories of Illyria and Macedonia swiftly and easily, where they defeated the Macedonian king Ptolemy Seraunis. The Celts continued their advance and attempted to seize Greece, moving towards Phocis to Delphi. There stood a temple dedicated to Apollo, which was considered extraordinarily wealthy due to the accumulated offerings from all over Greece. For the decisive battle at Delphi in 279 BC, Brennus assembled a large army, estimated to consist of 20,000 to 40,000 warriors. The Greek city-states united to resist him, fielding an army of 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers, which was half the size of the Celtic forces. However, the Greeks were well acquainted with the terrain. Among the Greek leaders, the experienced strategist Athenodorus played a key role, receiving active support from Athenian military advisors. By forcing the Celts to fight among steep mountain slopes and narrow paths, the Greeks prevented their enemy from using their numerical advantage. Moreover, according to legend, during the battle an earthquake occurred, causing a large mass of rocks to fall on the Celtic troops. Such assistance from Apollo, as interpreted by the Greeks, boosted their morale. Brennus was wounded and realized that the battle was lost, so he commanded a retreat. The Celts were defeated, and a significant portion of their tribes assimilated there. This marked the end of the Celtic expansion in the Balkans. However, a large portion of the Celts moved to Asia Minor. They gained control over a territory that roughly corresponds to the borders of modern-day Turkey's Ankara province. There, an independent Celtic kingdom called Galatia was established. This state was made up of several tribes, each with its own chieftains, but overall control was exercised by one ruler, the High King. The Galatians preserved Celtic culture, including their art, religious traditions, and everyday customs. They were also renowned for their military prowess, particularly their infantry, which used long swords and spears, characteristic weapons of all Celts. After Rome conquered Greece in the 2nd century BCE, the Galatian kings formed alliances with their new neighbor to counter external threats, particularly from the Pontic kingdom, which aggressively sought to expand westward. Rome also fought against the Pontics, but gained much more from the alliance with Galatia than the Celts did from their alliance with the Romans. The war was successful, but it took place on Galatian territory, weakening the Celtic kingdom. By 25 BCE, Rome fully absorbed it, turning it into one of its provinces. Nevertheless, Celtic culture persisted here for a long time. After a rapid expansion in Eastern Europe, the Celts gradually assimilated with the Germans or other local tribes due to the demographic advantage of these tribes. In Western Europe, however, the situation was different. There, the Celts were numerous enough to establish states based on their culture. At the same time, in West and Central Europe, the Celts found themselves in the path of Roman expansion, which was gaining power. Starting around the 3rd century BCE, conflicts began between them, resulting in the Celts mostly either acknowledging Roman supremacy or fighting against it and losing. For example, the Boii tribe, which initially inhabited the territory of modern-day Czech Republic and Poland, migrated to northern Italy. There, the Celts founded the city of Bononia, now known as Bologna. They held out against Rome, but were defeated in the 2nd century BCE, and their lands were incorporated into the empire. The Taurischi, also known as Norici, formed the kingdom of Noricum in the territory of modern Austria. It had strong trade connections with Rome and was integrated into the empire in the 1st century CE. The reason for the Celts' numerous defeats to the Romans on the battlefield lay in the tactical differences between the two civilizations. The Celts were fearless, and their warriors were generally taller and stronger than Roman legionaries. However, the Celts had a unique battle tactic. They used darts and spears, but their primary weapon was the longsword, which was awkward to wield in close formation and often broke due to the metallurgical limitations of the time. Additionally, each Celt chose the shape of their shield, leading to a lack of standardization in armor and equipment. The Roman army was better equipped and trained, giving them a significant advantage in maneuver warfare. Although the Celts invented chain mail, only relatively wealthy warriors could afford it, while the Romans made it a standard part of their soldiers' armor. Furthermore, the Romans often devastated cities that resisted them and enslaved their inhabitants. On the battlefield, the Celts were fierce fighters. However, due to the low level of centralization even within a single tribe, they often lacked the political will to fight for independence to the end or to reject rivalries and unite with other Celtic tribes for a common struggle. Additionally, voluntary annexation to Rome offered economic advantages. The Celts of the Iberian Peninsula, however, fought the Romans for a long time. During the Numantine War from 154 to 133 BCE, the Aravazi tribe resisted conquest. After a lengthy siege, the Romans captured Numantia, the capital of this Celtic kingdom, which subsequently lost its independence. The leader of another Celtic tribe, the Lusitanians, named Viriathus, led a fairly successful resistance against the Romans. He employed guerrilla tactics that yielded stunning results. Viriathus defeated the Romans for several years, starting in 147 BCE. The Celtic victories at the battles of Triboli, Lonia, Tuchorizi, and Baia allowed him to impose a peace treaty on Rome. He was recognized as Amicus Popoli Romani, a friend of the Roman people. This was supposed to grant the Lusitanians security from future invasions. However, Viriathus was assassinated by his own supporters, who were bribed by the Romans. Without their outstanding leader, the Lusitanians fought the invaders in one last decisive battle, but were defeated at Eriskin in 139 BCE. A large-scale invasion of Celtic territories began during the time of Gaius Julius Caesar. He initiated the conquest of Gaul in the 1st century BC. At that time, the most powerful Celtic kingdoms were held by three tribes, the Aedui, the Sequani, and the Arverni. The Aedui and the Sequani were in constant competition with each other. In 71 BC, the Sequani, seeking allies against the Aedui, invited the Germanic tribe of the Suebi, led by their chieftain Ariovistus, to eastern Gaul, modern Alsace. Together, the Sequani defeated and pushed back the Aedui. The decisive battle near Magatobria occurred around 63 BC. However, the Sequani fell under Ariovistus' control, who began to dictate terms to them. He demanded more land for the Germans, as he had brought about 120,000 people, including women and children. Ariovistus wanted to continue the conquest of Gaul, and in order to avoid conflict with Rome, he managed to gain the title of Rex et Amicus Populi Romani, King and Friend of the Roman people. This did not help when, in 58 BC, the Aedui turned to Caesar for assistance. He seized this opportunity to intervene in the affairs of Gaul and launch a large-scale invasion. Negotiations between Caesar and Ariovistus failed, leading to a major battle near the Vosges, the modern city of Mulhouse. 40,000 to 50,000 legionnaires clashed with an army that combined Celts and Germans, numbering between 70,000 and 100,000 warriors. However, due to their better training and unity, the Romans defeated the enemy, and Ariovistus left Gaul for good, returning the lands of the Germans. Though both the Aedui and the Sequani were now dependent on Rome, only the Arverni resisted Latin expansion. This culminated in a rebellion in 52 BC, led by the chieftain Vercingetorix. But his army was defeated by Caesar in the Battle of Alesia that same year, thus ending the Celts' dream of independence. Rome conquered all of Gaul. Caesar attempted to cross the English Channel and attacked the Celtic territories in Britain in 55-54 BC. He launched two short campaigns for this purpose. Even so, each time the Celts mounted a strong resistance, and Caesar retreated. Britain remained free from direct Roman control. Though not for long, Emperor Claudius decided to conquer Britain to strengthen his authority in Rome, launching his campaign in 43 AD. The main opponent of the Romans was the Celtic Kingdom of the Catuvalani, which ruled over a significant part of southeastern Britain. Its king Caratacus led the resistance against the Romans but was defeated. The Romans captured Camulodunum, the capital of the Celtic Kingdom, which is now known as Colchester. Caratacus survived and led the resistance against the Romans in what is now Wales, which was still independent at that time. Near the river Severn in 51 AD, Caratacus lost a decisive battle and fled to the tribe of the Burgontes. His queen Cartamandua did not want conflict with the empire, so she handed Caratacus over to the Romans, and the expansion continued. The decisive Celtic uprising took place in 60 AD, led by the legendary queen Bodica, who united the Iceni, Trinovantes, and other tribes into one army. The Roman governor of Britain, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was engaged in battle with the Celtic Ordovices in Wales, which Bodica took advantage of. She acted decisively, and the large-scale invasion of the Celts resulted in the destruction of three important Roman centers. Camulodunum, modern Colchester, Londinium, modern London, and Verulamium, modern St. Albans. The following year, Suetonius Paulinus gathered the remnants of the Roman army for a decisive battle near modern Watling Street, then a narrow pass between hills and forest. Despite a significant numerical advantage, poor organization and lack of discipline among the Celtic forces led to their devastating defeat. The Celtic queen took her own life. Although after the suppression of Bodica's uprising the rebellious Celtic tribes faced repression, overall, Roman policy towards the Celts became softer to avoid future unrest. After Bodica's defeat, the Romans focused on conquering Wales, where the Silurs and Ordovices tribes were trying to maintain their independence. General Gnaeus Julius Agricola from 78-84 AD quelled their resistance and then began an invasion of northern Britain, modern-day Scotland. In the Battle of Mons Graupius, its exact location is unknown, but it likely took place in the Grampian Mountains. Northern tribes united against the Roman legions, but it was to no avail. Agricola was victorious. However, this was not enough for real success. The Romans faced such fierce resistance from the local Celts that in 122 AD, Emperor Hadrian decided to halt the expansion of the British Isles and ordered the construction of Hadrian's Wall. This wall spanned the entire island, from Solway to Tyne. 20 years later, Emperor Antonius Pius attempted to push this border further north by building Antonine Wall, but the Celts and Picts repelled the attack. It was the Celts who spread Indo-European culture across Western Europe, characterized by masterful metallurgy, agriculture, military prowess, poetry, religion, artistic style, language, and the production of clothing, jewelry, and pottery. This occurred, in part, through the close assimilation of local tribes that adopted the advanced Celtic culture. Though, by the beginning of our era, only in Ireland and modern Scotland did Celtic tribes maintain their independence. The era of Celtic influence across Europe had passed. Nevertheless, the history of some Celtic-descended peoples was just beginning. If you want to learn more about Ireland, Scotland, Brittany, and other centers of Celtic from the medieval period to the present day, let us know in the comments. And don't forget to give this video a like and hit the bell to be the first to see new stories about history on the map.