Mongol invasion of India | Battle of Kili 1299 | How India DEFENDED AGAINST the Mongols

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire, under the leadership of Genghis Khan and his successors, was rapidly expanding across Asia, bringing unprecedented military and political changes. While the Mongols conquered vast territories from China to Eastern Europe, they also directed their attention toward the Indian subcontinent. During this time, Punjab and Northern India were seen as prime targets because of their wealth and resources, agriculture and key trade routes, especially Delhi. Delhi was a major trade hub, connecting various important regions. Merchants from all over the world—from Central Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and Southeast Asia—flocked to Delhi to exchange goods. Indian products like cotton textiles, silk, spices, and precious metals were traded for horses, weapons, silk, and luxury items from distant lands. Delhi's markets were always bustling with diverse goods coming from different regions. The trade port near the Yamuna River facilitated the flow of goods, making Delhi a crucial stop along transcontinental trade routes. One of the most attractive sectors for traders was the silk and cotton textile industry, which flourished during this period. Fabrics like muslin—a soft, fine silk—and various cotton and woolen textiles from India were exported to faraway places like Persia, Egypt, and even Europe. And of course, all that wealth ignited the Mongols' ambitions. Unlike India, they didn't have a flourishing agricultural society or complex village systems. They didn't also have fixed cities. Instead, they moved freely and used war as a key tool to expand and maintain their power. Their goals were simple—take away tributes and treasure from the kingdoms they had conquered, and take from them the latest technology. In addition, capture beautiful women for their harem and the most able-bodied men for their military. The Mongols didn't just invade, they wiped out entire civilizations. To give you an idea, during Genghis Khan's invasion of the Persian Empire in 1222, millions were killed in major cities. One million in Urgench, 700,000 in Merv, 1.7 million in Nishapur, 500,000 in Ray, and 1.6 million in Herat. Altogether, that's nearly 6 million people from just those cities. It's said that during this campaign alone, the Mongols killed around 1.5% of the world's population at the time. So, when Indian dynasties faced the Mongols, they were up against an army that wasn't just strong and brutally savage, but one that approached war with an entirely different mindset. And the later battles between them would probably have hardly happened if the Mongols had not set foot on Indian soil for the first time under very special circumstances. It all started in 1221, when a Mongol force chased Jalal al-Din Mangburni, the prince of the defeated Khwarazmian Empire, into Punjab. The Mongols fought his army there, and although Jalal al-Din escaped, his forces suffered heavy losses. After this battle, the Mongols decided not to push further into India to find Jalal al-Din due to the unfamiliar terrain and tough conditions, so they returned to Central Asia. But the Mongols didn't forget. In the following years, they regularly raided northern India, especially Punjab, forcing the Delhi Sultanate to divert massive resources to defense. In 1241, a Mongol army captured Lahore, one of the Delhi Sultanate's key cities, shocking the court since Lahore was an economic and strategic hub. Then, in 1245, they seized Multan, putting even more pressure on the Sultanate. During Sultan Mahmud Shah's reign from 1246 to 1266, Delhi was in a state of chaos. India was a vast land with diverse cultures, religions, and ethnicities. Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, and Jains all coexisted, making it hard to maintain control. Social classes often rose in rebellion against Muslim rulers from the north. While the Delhi Sultanate ruled over of northern India, other regions like the Rajput kingdoms remained independent. These Rajputs fiercely resisted Sultanate rule, engaging in long, drawn-out conflicts. On top of that, places like Gujarat, Bengal, and the Deccan were also fighting to maintain their autonomy from Delhi. The constant conflict didn't just destabilize the region, it opened the door for foreign invaders, especially the Mongols. By this time, the Mongols were becoming more and more of a threat along India's borders. Although Mahmud Shah was technically in charge, the real power was Giyas ud-Din Balban, a clever vizier who had broken the Mongol siege at Uch in 1246. He thus became the most influential figure in the court, which prevented Mahmud Shah from fully controlling political and military affairs. Balban quickly realized that the tribute system Mahmud Shah used to appease the Mongols was failing, and the northern attacks weren't letting up. He decided the So, what did Balban do? When Balban came to power in the mid-13th century, he adopted a more aggressive and assertive policy in dealing with the Mongols. Balban reformed the existing army by recruiting more soldiers, not only from the slave class, but also from the freed warriors, creating a more diverse military force. Balban focused on providing the army with more modern equipment, from weapons to armor, to improve its fighting ability. As the army grew stronger, Balban also launched strong counter-attacks, recapturing Multan and Lahore from the Mongols, restoring the Sultanate's prestige. One of Balban's wise decisions was to accept and welcome refugees from Mongolia, Persia, and other Central Asian regions. In the 1260s, when the Mongol civil wars broke out between the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde, two of the major khanates that had formed from the division of the Mongol Empire after the death of Genghis Khan, many warriors and nobles fled to Delhi. Balban adopted them into the Sultanate's army, giving him the opportunity to gain valuable knowledge of Mongol military tactics. This not only strengthened his army, but also equipped him with new tactics, improving Delhi's defenses. By 1270, Balban went to Lahore and ordered the construction of strong forts on the frontier. A series of strong forts were constructed there and strong armies were kept therein, and this is a very remarkable point in the reform of the military defense of India. Perhaps they had learned a lesson from the Mongol invasions of Europe. A typical example was the first Mongol invasion of Hungary. With a terrible defeat, Hungary lay in ruins. Nearly half of the inhabited places had been destroyed by the armies. Around 15 to 25 percent of the population was lost, and widespread hysteria spread across all of Europe. But the most remarkable thing here is that well-fortified castles were impenetrable to the Mongol army, given that five stone castles located east of the Danube survived the invasion. It proves that the Mongols could not easily conquer the fortified fortresses. This reinforced Balban's view that the construction of fortresses was an important strategy in defending the Sultanate. The fortresses were built with thick, high stone walls, watchtowers, and elaborate defenses, including traps and dugouts. The fortresses were built in locations that were easily observed and defended, allowing early detection of Mongol attacks. After a few years, the northwestern frontier of the Delhi Sultanate was split into two regions for defense. Prince Muhammad Khan was tasked with guarding Multan, Sindh, and Lahore, while Prince Bughra Khan was responsible for Sunam and Samana. However, when Bughra Khan was appointed governor of Bengal, the entire responsibility of defending the frontier fell to Prince Muhammad. Balban's defensive strategies were highly effective, as they managed to keep the Mongols from advancing deeper into India. In 1279 CE, the Mongols launched an attack on Delhi's but Prince Muhammad successfully repelled them, forcing their withdrawal. In 1285, a larger Mongol force launched a major offensive on Punjab. Prince Muhammad bravely faced the Mongols in battle, but was tragically killed. Although the Mongols plundered Lahore and Deepalpur, the regions of Multan and Uch were successfully defended. The defense measures put in place by Balban ultimately held strong, and the Mongols were forced to retreat once again. Balban spent the rest of his life in shock at his son's death and died in 1287. This was followed by the rise of the Khalji dynasty in 1920 under the founding of Jalal al-Din Khalji, who defeated a Mongol army at Baram in 1292. But in 1296, Jalal al-Din was killed by his own nephew, Ala al-Din Khalji, who seized power with the help of two key commanders, Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan. At the same time that Ala al-Din Khalji was ruling India, Dua Khan, alongside his son Kutluk Khwaja, ruled over the Chagatai Khanate, one of the Mongol Khanates that formed after Genghis Khan's death. Dua Khan was particularly ambitious about expanding his territory southwards in India, much like his predecessors. There were two main reasons for Dua Khan to invade India. One was that he could not ignore a rich land with a paradise for trade as I mentioned in the beginning. The second was that India was the only direction in which the Chagatai Khanate could expand without conflicting with other Mongol Khanates. Thus, during the reign of Ala al-Din Khalji, a Mongol force raided Punjab in the winter of 1297-98, but was defeated and forced to retreat by the general Ulugh Khan. Not long after, a second invasion attempt was also stopped by Ala al-Din's other general, Zafar Khan. Now, you'd think that might have been enough to discourage the Mongols, right? But no, it only made Dua Khan more determined. After this humiliating defeat, Dua Khan launched a third, fully prepared invasion, with the intention of conquering India completely. In late 1299, Dua, the ruler of the Mongol Chagatai Khanate, sent his son Kutlugh Khwaja to conquer Delhi. The Mongols intended to conquer and rule the Delhi Sultanate, not merely raid it. Therefore, during their six-month-long march to India, they did not resort to looting cities and destroying forts. At night, they were harassed by Delhi generals deployed at border posts such as Multan and Samana, but they always avoided confrontation with these generals, as the Mongols wanted to preserve their strength for the big showdown in Delhi. The Mongols set up camp at Kili, just about 10 kilometers from the outskirts of Delhi, and word of their arrival spread quickly through the region. As news trickled in, people from nearby villages began to flock toward the safety of Delhi's fortified walls, seeking refuge from the approaching storm. But here's the twist. It seems that Ala al-Din Khalji didn't catch wind of the Mongol invasion until they had already crossed the Indus River. Can you imagine the panic that must have set in? Without wasting a moment, Ala al-Din sprang into action. He quickly sent urgent messages to his provincial governors, calling for reinforcements to defend the capital. It was all hands on deck. Setting up camp near Siri, right by the banks of the Yamuna River, Ala al-Din gathered his officers for a crucial strategy meeting. His uncle, Ala al-Mulk, suggested that maybe they should consider diplomacy and negotiate with the Mongols, instead of risking everything in battle. After all, it was a smart play, right? But Ala al-Din wasn't having any of it. He argued passionately that showing any sign of weakness could undermine his authority and make his people lose faith in him. Therefore, he publicly declared his intention to march to Kili and fight the Mongols. And now, two forces finally confronted on the bank of Yamuna River. Mongols brought between 50,000 and 60,000 horsemen with them, while the Delhi army took around 70,000 with 700 elephants. Both forces deployed in the standard formation for steppe armies, a center and two wings. The Mongol forces were led by Kutluk Khwaja, who commanded the central wing of the army. The left wing of the army was commanded by Hichlak, likely a seasoned commander with expertise in cavalry maneuvers, crucial for the strategies Mongols often employed. The right wing was under the leadership of Tamar Bugha, another experienced Mongol commander. These flanking wings were essential for encircling and outmaneuvering the opposing forces on the battlefield, a hallmark of Mongol military tactics. In addition to the main army, a unit of 10,000 soldiers was positioned in ambush, under the command of Targi. This hidden force was likely intended for a surprise attack, to strike the enemy when they were most vulnerable, exploiting confusion and disorder in the heat of battle. The Mongols' strategic placement and the use of ambush tactics were critical elements of their overall battle strategy, which often relied on mobility, speed, and the element of surprise. Despite these efforts, the Mongols faced stiff resistance from the forces of Alauddin Khalji. The left wing of the Delhi army was led by Nusrat Khan, a prominent general also known as Wazir of the Sultanate. It consisted mainly of cavalry, whose speed and maneuverability were crucial for outflanking Mongol forces. Their mobility allowed them to execute swift attacks and avoid prolonged engagements. On the right wing, Zafar Khan commanded a mixed force of cavalry and archers, as well as Hindu warriors. The cavalry engaged the Mongols directly, while the archers weakened the enemy from a distance. The inclusion of Hindu warriors brought diversity in combat tactics, adding depth to the defensive line. In the center, Alauddin Khalji himself led elite cavalry, the backbone of his army. This unit held the most critical position, defending the heart of the army against the Mongol charge. Alauddin's direct leadership inspired his troops and ensured the army maintained its morale. Ahead of the center, Akhat Khan commanded the vanguard, tasked with absorbing the initial Mongol assault, while Ulug Khan, leading the reserve unit, provided reinforcements to wherever Mongol pressure intensified. This structure ensured a dynamic and flexible defense against the formidable Mongol cavalry. Moreover, the elephants were stationed in front of each division to act as a buffer against the Mongol assault. The Delhi army stretched over several miles, making it difficult for Alauddin to control it centrally. Therefore, he issued a strict order that no officer was to move from their position without his instructions. The punishment for the violation of this order would be beheading. However, the battle started when Alauddin's general Zafar Khan attacked Hijlaq's unit without Alauddin's permission. When the two sides are in conflict, Hijlaq's force fought back weakly and then suddenly retreated. Zafar Khan, driven by his relentless courage and confidence, pursued Hijlaq's retreating army, covering an exhausting distance of around 55 kilometers, leaving most of his forces, his infantry, and slower cavalry far behind. This seemed like the Mongols had no strength to fight back, but this was actually one of the Mongols' most notorious tactics, the feigned retreat. This strategy was designed to lure their enemies into a false sense of victory and then trap them. When Zafar Khan finally realized the trap he had fallen into, he was left with only 1,000 horsemen by his side. But the situation worsened rapidly. Targi with his unit ambushed Zafar Khan from behind and now blocked his return to the main camp of Alauddin. It's a bad situation. You might wonder why no one came to help, right? Well, some say it was Alauddin himself punishing Zafar for ignoring his orders. Alauddin wanted to delay the battle, hoping the Mongols would run out of supplies or reinforcements would arrive from the east. But Zafar, being bold, rushed ahead and ruined that plan. Then there's Ulugh Khan, who was just sitting back, doing nothing. The thing is, this wasn't just about battlefield tactics. It was personal. See, Zafar Khan had earned massive fame earlier by pushing the Mongols out of Sindh, while Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan were off in Gujarat dealing with their own battles. Zafar's victory put him in the spotlight. This success made both Alauddin and Ulugh Khan jealous. And according to Ziauddin Barani, a historian of the time, who even suggests that they might have been plotting against Zafar, with talk of blinding or even poisoning him to cut short his rise in fame. Zafar Khan knew exactly what kind of battle lay ahead the moment he realized he was surrounded by Mongol forces. But he didn't flinch. He gathered his officers together. And right then, they made the decision. Every warrior dreads, but knows deep down is sometimes necessary. There would be no retreat. In their eyes, to flee was not an escape, but a disgrace. They knew Alauddin Khalji well. He would never forgive them for showing cowardice. So, in that moment, they embraced their fate. They would fight until the very end. Not because it was the only option, but because it was the most honorable one. As the fighting intensified, Kutluk Khwaja saw the heroism and resilience of Zafar Khan and his men. He admired their spirit. So much so that he extended an offer to Zafar. Surrender, and he'd be taken to the Chagatai. Kanate. Not as a prisoner, but with honor. Now, most people would probably have accepted that deal, knowing there was no chance of victory. But Zafar Khan wasn't like most people. His sense of loyalty to his sultan, his pride as a warrior, and his unshakable commitment to Delhi meant that surrender never happened, and he outrightly declined the offer. In the chaotic, fierce combat that followed, Zafar Khan and his 1,000 horsemen fought with exceptional bravery. According to contemporary accounts, they killed around 5,000 Mongols, a remarkable feat given the overwhelming odds. But the price was heavy. Zafar Khan's forces were decimated, leaving only 200 men standing at the end. In the final moments of the battle, Zafar Khan made his last stand. With his horse cut down beneath him, he fought on foot, face to face with Higlak. In a dramatic duel, Zafar Khan engaged in hand-to-hand combat. But his bravery was not enough to change the outcome. He was struck by a well-aimed arrow that pierced through his armor and found his heart, bringing an end to his courageous stand. Zafar Khan's son on the left wing wasn't just sitting idle. He took up the mantle and led a fierce charge, forcing Tamar Bugha to retreat. But he wasn't about to let them off so easily. He and his forces pursued the Mongol army as they pulled back, despite being hit by a barrage of arrows from the retreating soldiers. At the same time, the Mongols made a move on the center of Aladdin's army, hoping to break through. However, Aladdin's division stood firm and pushed them back, causing significant Mongol casualties. The death of Zafar Khan, though, was a heavy blow to the morale of the Delhi officers. When morning came, Aladdin's advisors urged him to fall back to Delhi, suggesting that it would be safer to defend from the city's fortifications. But Aladdin, confident in his strategy, rejected the idea. He believed Zafar Khan's forces had suffered because they disobeyed his orders. He made it not back. As for Kutlur Khwaja, the Mongol commander, he seemed hesitant to launch another attack. The second and third days of the standoff ended without any major fighting. Then, under the cover of night, the Mongols decided to retreat toward their homeland. Aladdin, seeing the Mongols pulling back, allowed them to leave without further conflict and then returned to Delhi victorious. However, Dua Khan was not satisfied. In 1303 AD, he again sent a large force of 120,000 cavalry to attack Delhi, under General Taragai. Caught off guard and weakened, Aladdin quickly fortified his defenses around Siri, relying on natural barriers like the Yamuna River and the ruins of Delhi's fortifications. He dug trenches and built strongholds, successfully holding off the Mongol siege for two months until Taragai retreated in frustration. In 1305, the Mongols attempted another invasion with 50,000 troops. But after the death of Taragai, Aladdin dispatched 30,000 to 40,000 cavalry under Malik Nayak, resulting in a crushing victory for Delhi. By 1306, Dua Khan launched a final assault, but Malik Kafur defeated the Thus, Aladdin Khilji achieved what no other ruler in the world, whether eastern or western, had ever achieved. He repeatedly repelled and defeated the large-scale invasions of the Mongols, who became an unstoppable force wherever they went. Russia, China, Persia, Iraq, Syria, Europe. From the knowledge of how other countries fared under the Mongols, it can be said that if the India would have been set back at least two or three hundred years in its development. A large part of the knowledge and culture that had been accumulated in India over the millennia would have been destroyed. Every library, school, temple, mosque, and even home would have been burned down. Thus, the Mongols were unlike any other invader. If the Mongols had won the Khilji, they would have wiped a large part of India's cultural heritage off the map of the world. If we have ancient traditions in India that have survived to this day, a large part of the credit for that must go to Aladdin Khilji, one of the greatest warrior kings in history.