Why Rome's Golden Age Ended? - The Turmoil Between 180-235 AD

With the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 AD, so came to an end the period of the Five Good Emperors. The stability and prosperity Rome had known in this time would be shattered. Rising up to undo the work of previous centuries, chaotic rule, economic strife, and military threats would characterize the next era. While there were some notable military successes and state measures during this period, Emperor's rules were generally short, with bloody succession battles the norm. This spread instability and, when combined with economic difficulties, helped set in motion events leading to the eventual downfall and disintegration of the mighty Roman Empire. The 200 years prior to 180 AD had been the days of Pax Romana, a period of great economic and military might of the Roman Empire. The flow of riches from territory under Roman possession was unprecedented, as were developments in the fields of arts and engineering. A series of formidable rulers played a vital role in the prosperity of the period, helping to bring stability and security. This included the Five Good Emperors, with Marcus Aurelius being the of these. He was a considered man and profound philosopher, known for his stoic legacy. Though his reign had been characterized by almost constant external warfare on Rome's borders, internally, dynamics were stable and prosperous. Aurelius' son, Commodus, who was to inherit the title of Emperor, could not have been more different. He was neither known for his cool temperament or strategic vision. Possibly in part a personal rebellion against his slightly austere upbringing guided by his father's stoic beliefs, his rule was increasingly characterized by debauchery and excess. Poor agricultural policy also led to large-scale citizen stockpiling of grain, which provided fertile ground for a wave of bubonic plague soon to arrive. At home in Rome, he increased the prominence of gladiatorial battles with more frequent and lavish fights, including ornate historical reenactments of famous battles from antiquity. Wild beast numbers imported from Africa rocketed, with Commodus himself even joining the fray fighting in the Colosseum as a gladiator. These were almost certainly staged fights in his favor, yet they still brought spectacle and, in the eyes of many, debasement of the position of emperor not seen before. If not in the ring, then Commodus could be found on a raised shooting platform, throwing javelin and firing arrows in a slaughter of wild animals. The direction of his rule couldn't have been more different to that of his father, a focus on the short-sighted pursuit of pleasure and power. He had built up many enemies during his short reign, and by 193 AD, close associates moved against him. He met his grisly end in the bath, strangled by a wrestling partner. Commodus' assassination would mark an increasing trend towards short-lived rules with emperors dispatched by treachery from within. Following his death, the year of the five emperors saw a period of rapid succession before Septimius Severus was able to claim rule for himself. An interesting figure born in present-day Libya and largely of North African descent, he made military reforms and attempted to stem the fraying of the empire which had hastened under Commodus. As well as some notable civic programs, including the boosting of funding and prominence in Rome's African cities, he also fought to stamp out much of the decadence and corruption which had taken root during Commodus' reign. As a result, he was generally popular with the citizenry, however, never with the Senate. This was in part due to his gaining of power by military means, as well as his open hostility towards them, with many executed on corruption charges during his reign. He also improved conditions for the military with a boost to soldiers' pay which helped ensure loyalty from that camp, an especially valuable commodity in these increasingly unsettled times for Rome. Severus is perhaps best remembered for his large-scale military actions in Britain. In his campaigns of 209 and 210 AD, he pushed north beyond Hadrian's Wall into Caledonia, rebuilding forts and garrisoning troops in territory not held by Rome in a century. He departed for the campaign with troop numbers of up to 50,000 legionaries and auxiliaries, as well as a huge naval fleet accompanying his troops up the British coastline and through river systems as they advanced, a mobile support and resupply system. It was a strategically mature and ambitious approach. His aim was to push north into modern-day Scotland, defeating beyond question the tribal confederacies there. This was to cement Roman rule, but on a personal level, also a hunt for more valor by an elderly emperor. Upon seeing the arrival of huge Roman armies, the tribal confederacies initially vied for peace through envoys. Desiring battle, though, Severus refused and, after preparing his supplies, pushed into Maetae and Caledonian tribal territory beyond the Antonine Wall. Frequent skirmishes were common, Roman troops ambushed while passing through narrow gorges and across marshes. A truly fearsome experience as a legionary, to see Britons in full war paint descending steep valley sides towards you, the air filled with war cries. Many of these encounters Romans won with their discipline and tight formations. Following drills, they would quickly form a defensive line to repel the enemy, thrusting through the shield line with gladiuses at the less well-protected natives. However, on other occasions, especially as Severus pushed further north and troops encountered supply problems, smaller groups of Romans were successfully picked off by the Britons. The Roman historian and chronicler Cassio Dio even reported mass suicide of troops in these situations to avoid capture at the hands of the fearsome tribes, known for their torture and killing of Roman captives. Despite some success in subduing both tribal groups in the north, the campaigns were taxing, and in the brutal English winter of 210 AD, Severus fell ill. To make matters worse, the tribes he had subdued in the first campaign were now rebelling, so Severus was forced to delegate control of the campaign to his wayward son, Caracalla. He apparently instructed him by quoting from Homer, stating, This level of untargeted violence shows his frustration with progress and a willingness to kill at any cost for the power of Rome and personal glory. Severus would die in York the following year of 211 AD, never having returned to Rome from campaign. He named his sons, Caracalla and Jata, to be co-rulers following his death. However, the arrangement was short-lived. Caracalla, the eldest and also more experienced leader, had his brother killed in a truly treacherous plot whereby Jata was lured to a supposed peace meeting at their mother's apartments, therefore ensuring he would be without his guards. He was then slain at the meeting by a centurion under Caracalla's command. Despite the bloody means, Caracalla now had the complete power he had yearned for. Following Caracalla came a quick succession of other rulers from the Severan dynasty. Macrinus, with a reign of just over a year, followed by the controversial Elagapolis. He was the cousin of Caracalla, who supposedly paid little regard to Roman customs and was shrouded in sexual deviancy allegations from the start. His four-year reign was followed by Alexander, the son of Caracalla and the last of the Severan dynasty. Alexander became emperor following the death of his cousin Elagapolis. It was a lengthy reign for the period and characterized by some sensible state measures, as well as a more balanced approach to rule. Despite this, the military would weaken under Alexander, in part likely due to the breakdown of discipline within the Praetorian Guard, the effects of losses in manpower and material during Severus' British campaigns a few decades previously, as well as demographic impacts of the under Commodus. Whatever the case, though, Alexander and his armies were not particularly well prepared for the serious conflict which would emerge with the Sassanid threat on Rome's eastern borders from 229 AD. The Sassanians were a fearsome enemy. They had recently put down the Parthian king, with whom Rome had maintained a working relationship and were now seeking to restore the glory and territory of the Persian Empire, as seen under rulers of old such as Xerxes and Darius. This had brought them into conflict with Rome on the eastern borders of its Mediterranean Empire. Sassanid incursions into Syria and other areas were becoming more common and it demanded a response. Alexander gathered and personally led his troops in this eastern campaign, finally facing the enemy in pitched battle in 232 AD. Demonstrating the sheer geographic extent of the Roman Empire, legionaries were now facing a largely mounted enemy who placed great importance on the bow. Having more in common with Mongol armies than Rome's enemies of Europe, the Sassanids presented new tactical challenges for troops. Alexander split his armies in three parts, each meeting the enemy in different locations. In a poor strategic play, the southern portion faced almost the entire Sassanid force alone and was crushed, being almost entirely wiped out. This forced Alexander's eventual retreat to Rome, with troop morale suffering. The campaign did retake some territory the Sassanids had captured in their initial drive of 229 AD, so Alexander was still able to portray it as a victory of sorts. Just as the height of the Sassanid threat was passing, in 233 AD, another, perhaps even more dangerous one was emerging. Germanic tribes were now moving south and increasingly pressuring Roman territory. The Goths and Alamanni in particular were launching raids deep into Roman Germania. The increasing boldness of these raids was seen as a sign of Alexander's weakness, already a theme amongst troops from his Sassanid campaign. Though Alexander made efforts to quell the Germanic advance, it amounted to a temporary fix at best, relying heavily on tribune funds to pacify certain groups, as well as seeking peace arrangements, disquiet among his troops boiled over and he was assassinated in the year 235 AD. Not only would the threat of the Germanic tribes prove Alexander's undoing, it would also play a large part in the subsequent period of decline and eventual downfall of the empire. No longer could secure borders and internal peace be relied upon as Rome moved into the crisis of the 3rd century.