Battle of Yarmuk, 636 AD (ALL PARTS) ⚔️ Did this battle change history?

On a warm August day in 636 CE, the Arab army under Khalid ibn al-Walid challenged the supremacy of the mighty Byzantine Empire. The two armies stared each other down across the grassy field of the Yarmouk plateau, while the vultures circled above. One Arab warrior stepped forward, crying out, I am the killer of Romans! I am the scourge sent upon you! The battle that would change the course of history is about to take place. After Prophet Muhammad's death in 632, the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, coordinated military campaigns over vast territories of Arabia, turning the peninsula into a stronghold of Islam. This expansion was spearheaded by battle-hardened and experienced commanders, most notably Khalid ibn al-Walid, the most dependable commander for the Prophet and his successors. The Caliph's goal to bring all Arab tribal groups under Rashidun rule, including those in the steppes and cities of Iraq and Syria, led to the first direct clashes with the Byzantines and Sassanians. The two empires had been at war with each other for decades and the prolonged conflict exhausted the two superpowers. The Byzantines formally restored control over their territories, but decades of war brought political and economic strife across their territory in the Levant, and the imperial authority wasn't yet fully re-established beyond the Dead Sea in the southeast. Foreign policy changed as well. The empire stopped subsidizing many tribal groups that fought on their side, deeming this financial expenditure was no longer needed now that the war against the Sassanians was won. Instead, they began building defensive coalitions with nomadic groups of northern Hejaz to guard Syria from the southeast, extending their political control into Arabia, thereby directly threatening the Muslims who sought to unite Arab tribes under the banner of Islam. Hence it was imperative for Abu Bakr to assert Rashidun influence in the direction of Syria before the Byzantines could make headway in pulling this area into their sphere of influence. In early 633, four Arab armies entered Byzantine territory, commanded by Amr ibn al-Az, Jurabil ibn Hasanah, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and Abu Ubaidah. They were ordered not to attack, besiege or raze any major cities. The objective of this initial phase of the campaign was to occupy the countryside inhabited predominantly by the Arabic-speaking population, many of whom would join the Islamic cause, thus swelling Rashidun ranks and providing valuable logistical support. These early operations laid the groundwork for the upcoming invasion and, ironically, Abu Bakr's focus on the countryside would fool the Byzantines into perceiving the Muslims as mere raiders and therefore no significant imperial forces were assembled to combat the threat in early 633. Meanwhile in the east, Caliph's orders were the same, bring the Arab tribes of Iraq into the fold. From the south, Abu Bakr dispatched Khalid, his most trusted commander, in early spring. As the army assembled, the corps of Khalid's force of loyal volunteers was augmented by troops from several tribes across Arabia. Some of these tribes fought against Medina in the Ridda Wars, but some sections remained loyal and it was these troops that now reinforced the campaign against the Sassanians. What followed was one of Khalid's greatest strategic achievements. The swift conquest of Sassanian lands west of the Euphrates in a series of battles would be a display of true tactical genius. With his versatile implementation of the indirect approach, Khalid would attack opposing armies from unexpected directions with multiple rapid flanking maneuvers. Furthermore, he was one of only a few commanders in history who used double envelopment to encircle and destroy armies larger than his own, launching perfectly timed cavalry attacks on the opponent's flanks. This daring war of movement reflected his lightning fast conquest of the territory west of the Euphrates. Then, as he laid the groundwork for Rashidun administration and planned the offensive into central Iraq and the Sassanian capital, a message arrived from the Caliph. Khalid was to urgently march to Syria to take command of the invasion of the Byzantine Empire. In April 634 he departed Iraq with a small force of veterans whose loyalty to Islam was absolute, striking out across the desert towards Syria. A most perilous of journeys. The troops couldn't carry enough water to last until they reached Syria, so Khalid forced 20 of the camels to drink large quantities of water, then tied their mouth so they wouldn't spoil it by eating or chewing their cud. Camels would then be slaughtered daily and the preserved water in their stomachs would quench the thirst of the troops. The march through largely waterless country lasted for six days, becoming one of Khalid's most famous military feats. Upon entering Syria he moved southwest to meet with the three Muslim armies near Damascus, capturing forts and towns along the way. Byzantine garrisons were caught completely by surprise, not expecting that Muslim troops could enter their territory from an inhospitable desert. So far the empire relied on a system of forts along the border that would relay information about enemy troop movements to the interior, giving the imperial army time to mobilize and respond to the threat. The prevailing mindset was that any attack that penetrated into the interior would eventually be repulsed, thus any loss of territory would only be temporary. But by now the Muslims gained full control over rural areas in the southeast, and with Khalid's arrival the Caliph turned his full attention to the conquest of important Syrian towns. Bostra fell first, and the four Muslim armies marched towards Palestine to join Amr ibn al-Az, who was facing a large concentration of Byzantine troops commanded by Emperor Heraclius' brother Theodore. The Byzantines reportedly recruited Bedouin Christian spies and were able to anticipate the movement of the Muslim army, managing to position themselves for the upcoming attack. The Battle of Ajnadan, the first major engagement, was bitterly fought. Many prominent Muslims fell as martyrs on the field of battle, but under Khalid's leadership the Arabs managed to wipe out the presence of the Byzantine field army in Syria, and were now advancing north. Theodore retreated to join the Emperor at Emeza, while remnants of the imperial army fled in disorder to nearby walled cities and forts, with many of the survivors converging on Pella, joining the garrison that was stationed there. Alarmed by Khalid's rapid advance, Heraclius dispatched two contingents to fortify key roads south of Damascus, to give the city time to prepare for a siege that was soon coming, and then subsequently headed for Antioch, to begin preparations to deal with the Arab threat. But the Byzantines were not able to hold Khalid's advance for long, as the Muslim army outmaneuvered their entrenched positions and proceeded to surround Damascus two days later. The siege lasted for 20 days and, after a Byzantine relief force was defeated, the city capitulated. But then came news from Medina that Caliph Abu Bakr died about a month earlier, making Umar ibn al-Khattab, Khalid's cousin, his successor. Aware of Khalid's popularity, the deeply religious Umar demoted him and placed Abu Ubaidah in charge of the Muslim army, aiming to show that no matter who commands the troops, it is Allah alone who gives victory on the battlefield. Under the command of the more cautious Abu Ubaidah, the Muslim advance continued at a slower pace over the coming months. He divided the army in two, advancing north with the majority of the troops, while sending two armies to capture Palestine, where several strong Byzantine garrisons remained in the rear during the initial rapid Muslim advance. Meanwhile in Antioch, Heraclius wasn't sitting idle. He displayed the military might of the Byzantine Empire as five armies assembled and began their march back into Syria from multiple directions, under the overall command of Van, an Armenian general. Furthermore, Heraclius sent word to all major cities, reminding the people of the Byzantine superiority after recent victories against the Sassanians. The message was clear, that Syria belonged to the Empire was a fact of life after centuries of Byzantine rule, and the current situation, while alarming, was a setback that will be dealt with. Heraclius' army was prepared to defeat the Arabs in a decisive battle or destroy their separate armies piecemeal. Upon learning of the initial movement of enemy troops, Khalid immediately recognized that the Muslim position in the north will be surrounded by the numerically superior Byzantine army. He urged Abu Ubaidah to abandon northern Syria and retreat south to a stronger position where the rest of their forces could join them. After some consideration, Abu Ubaidah ordered the army to march south. Messengers were sent to the two commanders in Palestine to meet with the main army on the vast plains northeast of Lake Tiberias, which offered plenty of fodder for the horses and were conducive to cavalry maneuvers. And, just as Khalid had suspected, four imperial armies marched on Emesa, which would've pinned the Arabs in the north, while another Byzantine army was to recapture Damascus and cut off their line of retreat. The Muslim army withdrew just in time. Meanwhile, Yazdegerd negotiated with Heraclius to mount an offensive from the east. However, the Caesanian army would not be ready in time for a simultaneous attack. Back west, faced against a massive Byzantine army, Abu Ubaidah sent word to Caliph Umar to send all available reinforcements to Syria. And, as the Muslim armies met, scouts reported that a strong Byzantine garrison gathered at Caesarea. This made encamping on the plains near Lake Tiberias a dangerous proposition, as the Arab army could now potentially be attacked on two sides. Abu Ubaidah again heeded Khalid's advice to move the army to a stronger position, on the eastern end of the Yarmouk plateau. With the battle looming, Khalid was recognized as the ablest field commander and was given temporary control of the troops, while Abu Ubaidah remained in overall strategic command, and the Byzantine army followed close behind. Terrain would have a major impact on the course of the battle. The Yarmouk plateau is predominantly an undulated flat plain, dotted with rocky outcrops. Rivers Yarmouk, Rukad, Alan and Harir slice deep into the level plateau, creating deep gorges with steep cliffs. The grassy plain offered enough fodder and several springs to supply both armies. And the Byzantines were not in a rush. Van was instructed by the Emperor to try and pay off the Muslims to go back to Arabia, or at the very least to stall negotiations until the Sassanians were ready to attack in Iraq. Jabala and Gregory did much of the mediation, but as the talks dragged on for up to three months, reinforcements sent by Umar began arriving. Concerned that he might lose the numerical advantage, Van took matters into his own hands and asked to negotiate with Khalid in person. By his own words, the Armenian general regarded the Arabs as nothing more than impoverished, hungry, wretched Bedouins, and he offered Khalid food and gold to leave Byzantine lands. Unimpressed by Van's condescendence, Khalid responded, it is not hunger that brought us here, calling on the Christian general to embrace Islam in exchange for peace, adding, if you refuse, there can only be war between us, and you will face men who love death as you love life. Enraged, Van fired a warning. Better men tried to take our lands but were all defeated. Negotiations were over. Van positioned the main Byzantine camp near Al-Yakuza from where one of the main Roman roads connecting Egypt and Syria could be defended. He anchored his battle line to the gorge in the south and arrayed his troops along the Alan river, stretching to the town of Jebea in the north. On his left flank he placed the Slavic infantry, commanded by Kanatir, a Slavic prince. In the center, Jabala commanded the Ghassanid contingent, while Derjan led the Armenians. Gregory commanded the experienced Greek infantry on the right flank. It is said that the last Roman legion, the Macedonian 5th, was under his command. Archers were mixed with the infantry. Cavalry contingents were supporting each of the four divisions of infantry. The Byzantine army numbered around 40,000. Across the field, Khalid stretched his infantry to match the length of the Byzantine line, with the left flank anchored on the gorge in the south, while his right flank reached the vicinity of the town of Nawa. He placed Amr in charge of the right flank, Shurahbil and Abu Ubaidah in the center, and Yazid on the left, with archers mixed in with the infantry. Cavalry contingents were positioned to prevent breakthroughs, while Khalid took command of the hand-picked cavalry reserve. The Arab army was around 25,000 strong. The long battle line, stretching around 10km across the plain, would test the leadership of commanders on both sides. Early on August 15th, the two armies stared each other down. One Arab warrior came forward, dropped his shield and removed his armor, crying out, I am the death of the palefaces! I am the killer of Romans! I am the scourge sent upon you! I am Zahra ibn al-Azwar! Several Byzantine officers challenged the Muslim champion. In a matter of minutes Zahra cut them down in single combat. More Muslim champions stepped forward and as the duelling spectacle continued, Byzantine troops witnessed the slaying of many of their officers. Then, at noon, Van ordered the army to advance. Using his numerical advantage to extend the front, he forced Khalid to stretch his infantry thin and he planned to probe the Muslim line for any weak spots that he could punch through. As the Byzantine army closed the distance, Van ordered a third of his infantry to advance on the enemy. The fighting was not too intensive as both sides tested each other's resolve. Nevertheless, Van was surprised by the determination of Arab troops. He observed that the deep gorge to the south would restrict cavalry maneuvers and offer some protection to the Muslim left flank, while the terrain to the north was open, leaving the Muslim right exposed. Khalid was also aware of this problem and he positioned himself slightly closer to the right wing so that he could reinforce it quickly if necessary. As the day began drawing to a close, Van broke off the attack and ordered his troops back into the position on the Allen River. During the night, both commanders contemplated their next move. Khalid knew that a frontal assault against a better equipped and more numerous enemy would be dangerous, especially when supported by contingents of Byzantine heavy cavalry. Van, meanwhile, was ready to attack and break the Muslims. Early next morning, the Byzantine commander committed all of his troops forward. He intended to catch the Muslims unprepared during their morning prayers. But Khalid expected this. During the previous night, he ordered the construction of outposts in front of his line to prevent any surprise attacks. Despite losing the element of surprise, Van remained confident in his drilled veterans. The Byzantine commander planned to apply steady pressure against the Muslims' center in order to tie down as many of Khalid's troops as possible, while focusing the main thrust of his attack on the flanks, where he expected to overwhelm and drive the enemy from the field with his superior numbers. As the two armies clashed, Khalid's men held their ground in the center against the stalled Byzantine advance. But for his troops on the flanks, the situation was different. Kanatir attacked Khalid's right flank in force. The outnumbered Muslim infantry held fast, but were pushed back. Amr ordered his cavalry to check the Byzantine advance in order to buy time for the infantry. The cavalry counterattack blunted the Byzantine charge, but Kanatir kept pushing the Muslims back toward their camp. Women from the camp rallied and some joined the fighting. They hobbled the camels around the camp, thus providing additional protection. A desperate struggle ensued as the Byzantines could not dislodge the determined Muslim fighters. Kanatir's heavy cavalry bogged down as their horses balked at the smell of aggressive camels, refusing to respond to the commands of their riders. In close quarters, the legs and bellies of the partially armored Byzantine horses now became exposed, and many of the heavily armored riders were pulled down from their saddles. Kanatir could not sustain the attack any longer. With Van's attack against the Muslim right flank broken, Khalid seized the moment to exploit the gap that had opened up between Kanatir and the Byzantine center. He ordered Amr to send his cavalry regiment and attack Kanatir's flank from the north. With incoming cavalry support, Amr ordered a general advance. The three-pronged attack forced Kanatir to abandon his advanced position and retreat towards the main Byzantine line. By timing his flanking maneuver to perfection, Khalid managed to push the Byzantines back with fewer troops. Had it not been for the disciplined retreat of Kanatir's experienced Slavic infantry, the Byzantine flank could've collapsed entirely. But the situation on the Muslim left was considerably more serious. With much of Khalid's mounted units currently on the right flank, Yazid's position was being overrun. Byzantine cavalry broke through the ranks and pushed towards the Muslim camp. Gregory's infantry slowly ground their way forward as Yazid's outnumbered infantry could not stop them. As they fell back to the camp, Yazid's troops were met with a barrage of insults and rocks thrown at them by the ferocious Arab women who urged them to not let the enemy defeat them, with some of the women taking part in the defense of the camp. Yazid was finally able to stabilize his line near the camp, temporarily stemming the Byzantine assault. Just as Van's plan appeared to be succeeding on the Muslim left, Khalid again showed his ability to adapt quickly. With the right flank stabilized, he dashed across the battlefield to aid the embattled Yazid. He detached a cavalry contingent under the command of Daraa ibn al-Azwar, ordering him to round the Byzantine center. This decision proved crucial, for when Daraa struck the flank of the Byzantine center, he fixed them in place, preventing reinforcements from reaching Gregory to support his push against the Muslim left. But most importantly, this maneuver gave the impression to the Greeks that they were being outflanked, damaging their morale. Further on the left flank, Khalid came to Yazid's aid, hitting Gregory's division. The Greeks gave ground under pressure, suffering particularly heavy casualties. During the fighting in the center, Daraa's troops killed the Byzantine commander Derjan, who fought with his troops in the front. Finally, as dusk approached, the two exhausted armies ceased hostilities for the day. For Van, losing one of his key lieutenants was an enormous blow, and the speed of Khalid's counterattacks exposed weaknesses in his plan, forcing him to change tack. The battle resumed with the Byzantines again advancing on the Muslim line. This time, however, Van focused mainly on Khalid's right flank, where the Byzantine heavy cavalry could do more damage. Bitter fighting ensued as the Byzantine heavy cavalry charge outmatched Arab light-mounted units. Amr's division fell back, followed shortly by Shurahbil. As Jabala's flank slowly became exposed, Khalid sprang into action at this critical moment, charging into the gap towards the Ghazanid flank. Finally, Amr managed to rally his forces and re-engage. Shurahbil too reorganized after taking some losses and went on the offensive. The fighting developed into a bloodbath as the outflanked Ghazanids took a heavy beating and retreated in disarray. Seeing Jabala disengaging, Kanatir too withdrew in good order. Khalid's well-timed flanking attack again stopped the Byzantines. The next day, Van persisted with the same battle plan. Kanatir led the Slavs against Amr's division. Jabala's Ghazanid division, now reinforced by Van's Armenians, advanced on Shurahbil. As soon as they met the Byzantine charge, the Muslims were hard-pressed. Arab light cavalry was especially having trouble holding the push of the imperial cataphracts. Meanwhile, Van ordered the Armenians and Greeks forward at a slower pace. Khalid now feared a general Byzantine assault along the entire line. He understood that, considering the losses on the previous day, he no longer had the numbers to repulse a general advance by imperial troops, and his cavalry reserve would not be able to reinforce both flanks at the same time. To avert disaster, Khalid sent Abu Ubaidah and Yazid forward, aiming to stall Van's advance and buy some time for his troops on the right. He then hastily rushed towards the gaps that opened between Shurahbil and Amr, as their lines started buckling under the weight of the Byzantine attack. Meanwhile, the Muslim left held the initial Byzantine push, but Van reinforced the attack with horse archers, subjecting the Arabs to ceaseless barrages of arrows. The point-blank volleys caused such losses to Abu Ubaidah's and Yazid's divisions that the incident became known as the Day of Lost Eyes. Unable to withstand the storm of arrows, the Muslim left retreated to get out of range of Byzantine archers. On the other side of the battlefield, Amr rallied his forces and halted Kanatir's advance, while Khalid shored up Shurahbil's ranks and pressed Jabala's division. The Ghassanids fought stubbornly, but having taken heavy losses, they slowly gave ground. Now that he was committed on the right, Khalid's worst fear was realized. Gregory ordered the general advance of his division, sensing that the Arabs were shaken by the losses they took from Byzantine arrow volleys. Sure enough, Yazid's battered division gave way, with Abu Ubaidah barely holding Van's Armenians. With the Rashidun left in dire straits, Arab women from the camp picked up weapons and joined the fighting. The desperate last stand of the women inspired the Muslims to hold their ground, against all odds. Meanwhile on the right, the Byzantines finally retreated after several hours of fighting, and the rest of Van's line soon followed. The fourth day of the battle was devastating for the Arabs, particularly the left wing, but incredibly they managed to hold back the Byzantines. Next morning, Van unexpectedly sent an emissary, offering a truce. Arab commanders met for an impromptu war council. Some argued to accept the truce, seeing it as a victory after fighting a much larger army deep within enemy territory, while others noted that the men are tired, wounded and vastly outnumbered. The consensus was to leave and come back to fight another day. Khalid listened to his comrades, then stood up saying, the past four days tested our resolve. Now is not the time to concede, now is the time to be decisive. He argued that the strategy was to be on the defensive, wear out the enemy, then counterattack. And now he sensed that the Byzantines lost heart and that Van was trying to buy time to raise morale of his troops. The time to attack is now. There would be no truce. During the night Khalid inspected the troops. Wounded soldiers leaned on each other, but even in the face of such overwhelming odds, their spirit never wavered. Determined to go on the offensive, the Muslim commander sent Daraa with 500 riders on a wide flanking maneuver to capture a key bridge across the Raqqad gorge, that served as a main line of communication between the Byzantine army and their camp. The fight back has begun. As the sun rose on the next day, from the Byzantine line a hulking figure trotted out on his warhorse, into the no man's land. It was Gregory, the commander of the Byzantine right flank, reputed to be a formidable fighter. Abu Ubaidah answered the challenge. As the overall strategic commander of Arab forces in Syria, before leaving he told Khalid, if I don't return, you shall resume command of the army after the battle, until the Caliph decides otherwise. And with that, the tall, slim figure of Abu Ubaidah, a man in his fifties, rode out to meet Gregory. The two met in the middle, both excellent in single combat. Circling each other they traded blows for several minutes, as both armies anxiously watched. Then Gregory ran back towards his line, a trick designed to fool Abu Ubaidah into lowering his guard. As the Arab general caught up with him, in a split second Gregory turned to strike. Abu Ubaidah ducked to evade the blow, striking the Greek general across the neck with his blade. Gregory dropped his sword and slumped from his horse. Moments later, Khalid ordered the Muslim line forward. Having spent most of the night reorganizing the troops, Khalid left a token force of cavalry behind the infantry divisions, spreading their formations to make it appear to the Byzantines like the disposition of the Arab army remained the same as it was during the previous day. And he took all of the remaining cavalry, hiding it in the shallow dips of the Some of the men in the Byzantine line could hardly believe that, despite such heavy losses, the Muslim army went on the offensive. As the clash in the center erupted, the Arabs pressed hard. They were determined to drive the enemy back, but their substantial numerical disadvantage meant that they could not sustain this battle of attrition for long. Just as Van's troops managed to slow the momentum of the Muslim advance, Khalid sprung his trap. From the gentle dips in the terrain, 8,000 riders galloped forward. By amassing most of his cavalry, Khalid planned to surround the Byzantine left flank. Knowing that time was of the essence, he urged his men to ride fast and without hesitation. Speed would decide the outcome of the battle. Busy with commanding the troops in the center, Van glanced to the left and saw the ominous cloud of dust. He scrambled to send his cavalry to cover the flank, realizing that the Muslim commander had outwitted him. In full gallop, Khalid surged past Amr's division and began to envelop Kanatir's Slavs. The rest of the Arab riders followed their general as he guided them around Byzantine ranks. Over his left shoulder, Khalid could see the fierce fighting in the center as he pushed his steed to go faster. Kanatir's and Jabala's line began folding as they braced for the impact of the Arab cavalry. As the Muslim riders smashed into Van's left, Khalid pierced an enemy soldier, breaking his lance in two. He drew his sword, striking anyone in a red tunic. The horses twisted and turned, wreaking havoc among the Byzantine infantry. Jabala and the Ghassanids disengaged and started fleeing. But to their horror, they realized that the bridge across the Rakkad, their main escape route, was blocked. Jabala's troops dispersed as each man tried to save himself. Kanatir fought on bravely, but the Slavic division was surrounded and stood no chance. The entire Byzantine line began collapsing. Shocked by Khalid's rapid maneuver, the imperial heavy cavalry tried in vain to stem the tide. The noose was tightening as Van's army was being pushed back towards the cliffs. The Armenian general barked orders and while some Byzantine units kept their cohesion, others were in total disarray. Unable to cope with the rapid movement of the Arab light cavalry, Byzantine cataphracts were attacked on all sides. Seeing that the situation was hopeless, they fled, abandoning the infantry to their fate. Khalid steadied his steed, closed his eyes, and whispered a prayer of gratitude. Though it was not immediately apparent, he knew that the battle was won. Van's army was cornered against the steep cliffs of the Rakkad and Yarmouk gorges, and over the next several hours Byzantine troops were systematically killed. Such was their desperation that hundreds if not thousands of imperial soldiers jumped to their deaths from the cliffs, to escape the wrath of Khalid's troops. On that day the Rashidun army achieved a victory that would change the course of history forever. The Battle of Yarmouk was certainly the battle of the century and one of the most pivotal battles in world history. The juggernaut that was the Byzantine army was made up of disciplined warriors, who probably thought they can easily outmatch the Arabic desert army. Unfortunately for them, in Khalid ibn al-Walid they faced possibly the greatest military mind of the age. In just a few short years he restructured the ragtag Arab forces into an army that would conquer half of the known world. On August 20th 636, at Yarmouk, after six grueling days, only one side was left standing. Islam stepped onto the world stage. And as always, thank you for watching!