馬可·奧勒留的戰爭The Wars of Marcus Aurelius

Spring, 172 A.D. The Danube rushes past the log walls of a legionary fort, at a bend where a pontoon bridge has been thrown across the river, a line of soldiers marches into barbarian territory. Standard bearers and trumpeters lead the way, followed by troops in plate armor, a squadron of the Praetorian Guard, and finally, Emperor Marcus Aurelius himself, distinguished by his long general's cloak. At the first marching camp, the army, now joined by troops of cavalry, assembles to watch the emperor perform the traditional sacrifice of purification. A courier, bearing news of the barbarians' movements, rushes into camp. Warned of the enemy's proximity, the legions set forth, furning barbarian fields and villages as they march. Barbarian outriders are captured, interrogated, and executed. At a river deep in the German forests, the Romans encounter a small party of barbarians, who pelt the emperor and his guards with sling stones before melting into the woods. Shortly thereafter, a large barbarian force surrounds the Roman camp. The Germans roll a siege tower forward, but miraculously, just before it reaches the camp wall, it is incinerated by a lightning bolt. A sortie scatters the barbarians. The Romans cross a stream in the teeth of barbarian opposition and pursue war bands through trackless mountains. And so on and on, as the reliefs of the column of Marcus Aurelius spiral upward. Roman soldiers march in neat ranks. Barbarians die. Villages burn. And through it all, the emperor stands aloof, godlike and alone. Though intended to emphasize his quasi-divine power, this representation neatly evokes the austere personality of Rome's philosopher-emperor. Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic. He believed that virtue was the only good and that the essence of virtue lay in self-governance. That, in short, it was imperative to accept, without joy or sorrow, all things beyond one's control. Over his long years of campaigning, he jutted down, apparently for his eyes only, the series of moral reflections we know today as his meditations. In this philosophical diary, Marcus reminds himself to accept misfortune with understanding, to never fear death, and to always be mindful of his duties. One is left with a picture of a thoughtful and rather melancholy man, doggedly pursuing moral perfection. Marcus had begun his studies of Stoicism in childhood, when, as a distant relative of Hadrian, he had been tutored by the foremost scholars in the empire. We still possess some of Marcus's letters to his tutor Franto, which show a precocious and very earnest teenager already imbued with a sense of duty. This sense was only strengthened when, at the age of seventeen, Marcus was formally adopted by Hadrian's chosen successor, Antoninus Pius. From a combination of skill and good luck, the twenty-three-year reign of Antoninus Pius was characterized by virtually unbroken peace and prosperity. Marcus, as heir apparent, continued his education and assumed the traditional senatorial offices, taking an increasingly important role in the imperial administration as Antoninus aged. Upon Antoninus's death, Marcus was immediately declared emperor by the Senate. In keeping with a promise he had made decades before to Hadrian, he insisted that the Senate declare his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, co-emperor. For the next eight years, Marcus and Verus ruled in concert, though in practice Marcus was always the senior partner. Before we continue, a brief word about this video's sponsor. If you are planning to visit the column of Marcus Aurelius and Rome's other ancient wonders, I recommend Through Eternity Tours. In addition to their best-selling tours of the Colosseum and Vatican, Through Eternity offers a range of itineraries, which take in everything from the Forum and Nero's Golden House to sites not found in any guidebook. If you'd like to explore Rome with Through Eternity's expert guides, use the discount code TOLLENSTONE2023 to save 5% on your purchase of any group or private tour. See the video description for a link and additional details. Back to Marcus Aurelius. During the summer of 161, only a few months after Marcus's accession, the Parthian king, Vilagus Caesar IV, invaded the Roman protectorate of Armenia and installed a new ruler. Shortly thereafter, the legion led by the Roman governor of Cappadocia was decisively defeated by Parthian forces. To stand the crisis, Marcus sent Lucius Verus to the eastern frontier with a retinue of experienced generals. These officers performed admirably, swiftly retaking Armenia and pushing into the Parthian heartland. In 165, the brilliant general, Ovidius Cassius, took the Parthian capital at Ctesiphon, effectively ending the war. While in Mesopotamia, however, Ovidius's troops contracted a strange new disease. It began with fever and cramps. After a few days of vomiting and diarrhea, the victim's body was covered with reddish spots, which rapidly developed into raised pustules. Then, very often, he died. Smallpox had arrived in Europe. The plague spread rapidly through the empire, eventually killing hundreds of thousands. One of its last victims may have been Lucius Verus himself, who died suddenly in 169. At this critical moment, as the legions reeled from loss of manpower, the barbarians invaded. For centuries, two German tribes, the Marcomanni and the Quadi, had dominated the forested lands along the left bank of the upper Danube. Emboldened by the drain of Roman troops toward Parthia, chieftains of these tribes had begun to lead raiding parties into the provinces of Noricum and Pannonia, roughly modern Austria and Slovakia. Recognizing the severity of the threat, Marcus reinforced the Danube frontier and had begun to mass troops for a major offensive when the plague struck. He was further delayed by Verus's death, which compelled him to return to Rome for several months. When Marcus finally returned to the frontier in the spring of 170, the Marcomanni and Quadi were ready for him. Just north of the legionary fortress at Carnuntum, not far from modern Vienna, the barbarians inflicted a serious defeat on the hastily assembled Roman troops. Then, led by their king Balamar, they raced around Marcus and made for Italy. By late summer, the Germans were besieging the great city of Aquileia near modern Venice. Marcus summoned troops from every frontier and managed, barely, to drive the barbarians from Italy and the Balkans. Then, determined to destroy the German threat, he gathered the full might of the Roman military machine and, in the spring of 172, crossed the Danube into the territory of the Marcomanni. Soon after, the Romans faced the Marcomanni in a major battle. Although the fighting was intense, Marcus's Praetorian prefect was killed. The Romans were victorious and the Marcomanni had been pacified by the end of the campaigning season. The next year, however, the Quadi attacked Roman territory and had to be subdued in their turn. In 174, having crushed the Quadi, Marcus moved the legions east to begin a campaign against the Sarmatians, a nomadic tribe famed for its heavy cavalry. After winning a series of victories, Marcus was forced to cut the campaign short by the news that his trusted lieutenant, Ovidius Cassius, the hero of the Parthian War, had declared himself emperor. Ovidius managed to gain control of Syria, Palestine and Egypt. But when the legions of the Rhine and Danube remained loyal to Marcus, his support melted away and he was conveniently executed by his own troops. After touring the eastern provinces to confirm their loyalty, Marcus returned to Rome for the first time in eight years and celebrated a grand triumph over the Marcomanni, Quadi and Sarmatians. He seized the opportunity to have his 15-year-old son, Commodus, declare co-emperor, a gesture that would prove his greatest mistake. Initially, however, Commodus seems to have been a dutiful heir apparent, accompanying his father back to Germany when the Marcomanni and Quadi revolted and again attacked Roman territory. Commodus was with Marcus when he died at Vindobona, modern Vienna, in March 180, and it was likely Commodus who commissioned the column that celebrates his father's victories. The column of Marcus Aurelius was modeled on Trajan's column, which had been dedicated 60 years before. Like Trajan's column, it was 100 Roman feet tall and decorated with a scrolling band of reliefs. But where the reliefs of Trajan's column celebrated the establishment of order, focusing more on construction and ritual than on battle, the reliefs of the column of Marcus Aurelius show all the savage realities of war. Men writhe and die on the battlefield. Women scream as their homes are burnt. Captives weep as they are led to execution. But one figure rises above the storm of hate and fear. In scene after scene, the emperor appears cool and composed, with eyes that seem to look beyond the horrors of the battlefield, toward the impossible path of virtue. If you're interested in more Tolstone content, including my podcast, check out my channel, Tolstone Footnotes. I also have a channel called Sinny Roots of the Past, which is dedicated to historically-themed travel. You'll find both channels linked in the description. Please consider joining other viewers in supporting Tolstone on Patreon. You might also enjoy my book, Naked Statues, Black Gladiators, and War Elephants. Thanks for watching.