Up from Slavery to the White House (cont.)

Legacy

Sculpture of Booker T. Washington at the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.

1951 Carver-Washington commemorative half dollar

Booker T. Washington was so acclaimed as a public leader that the period of his activity, from 1880 to 1915, has been called the Age of Booker T. Washington.[58] Historiography on Washington, his character, and the value of that leadership has varied dramatically. After his death, he came under heavy criticism in the civil rights community for accommodationism to white supremacy. However, since the late 20th century, a more balanced view of his very wide range of activities has appeared. As of 2010, the most recent studies, "defend and celebrate his accomplishments, legacy, and leadership".[86]

Washington was held in high regard by business-oriented conservatives, both white and black. Historian Eric Foner argues that the freedom movement of the late nineteenth century changed directions so as to align with America's new economic and intellectual framework. Black leaders emphasized economic self-help and individual advancement into the middle class as a more fruitful strategy than political agitation. There was emphasis on education and literacy throughout the period after the Civil War. Washington's famous Atlanta speech of 1895 marked this transition, as it called on blacks to develop their farms, their industrial skills, and their entrepreneurship as the next stage in emerging from slavery.[87]

By this time, Mississippi had passed a new constitution, and other Southern states were following suit, or using electoral laws to raise barriers to voter registration; they completed disenfranchisement of blacks at the turn of the 20th century to maintain white supremacy. But at the same time, Washington secretly arranged to fund numerous legal challenges to such voting restrictions and segregation, which he believed was the way they had to be attacked.[88]

Washington repudiated the historic abolitionist emphasis on unceasing agitation for full equality, advising blacks that it was counterproductive to fight segregation at that point. Foner concludes that Washington's strong support in the black community was rooted in its widespread realization that, given their legal and political realities, frontal assaults on white supremacy were impossible, and the best way forward was to concentrate on building up their economic and social structures inside segregated communities.[89] Historian C. Vann Woodward in 1951 wrote of Washington, "The businessman's gospel of free enterprise, competition, and laissez faire never had a more loyal exponent."[90]

Historians since the late 20th century have been divided in their characterization of Washington: some describe him as a visionary capable of "read[ing] minds with the skill of a master psychologist," who expertly played the political game in nineteenth-century Washington by its own rules.[91] Others say he was a self-serving, crafty narcissist who threatened and punished those in the way of his personal interests, traveled with an entourage, and spent much time fundraising, signing autographs, and giving flowery patriotic speeches with much flag waving – acts more indicative of an artful political boss than an altruistic civil rights leader.[91]

People called Washington the "Wizard of Tuskegee" because of his highly developed political skills and his creation of a nationwide political machine based on the black middle class, white philanthropy, and Republican Party support. Opponents called this network the "Tuskegee Machine". Washington maintained control because of his ability to gain support of numerous groups, including influential whites and black business, educational and religious communities nationwide. He advised as to the use of financial donations from philanthropists and avoided antagonizing white Southerners with his accommodation to the political realities of the age of Jim Crow segregation.[28]

The Tuskegee machine collapsed rapidly after Washington's death. He was the charismatic leader who held it all together, with the aid of Emmett Jay Scott. But the trustees replaced Scott, and the elaborate system fell apart.[92][93] Critics in the 1920s to 1960s, especially those connected with the NAACP, ridiculed Tuskegee as a producer of a class of submissive black laborers. Since the late 20th century, historians have given much more favorable view, emphasizing the school's illustrious faculty and the progressive black movements, institutions and leaders in education, politics, architecture, medicine and other professions it produced who worked hard in communities across the United States, and indeed worldwide across the African Diaspora.[94] Deborah Morowski points out that Tuskegee's curriculum served to help students achieve a sense of personal and collective efficacy. She concludes:

The social studies curriculum provided an opportunity for the uplift of African Americans at time when these opportunities were few and far between for black youth. The curriculum provided inspiration for African Americans to advance their standing in society, to change the view of southern whites toward the value of blacks, and ultimately, to advance racial equality.[95]

At a time when most black Americans were poor farmers in the South and were ignored by the national black leadership, Washington's Tuskegee Institute made their needs a high priority. It lobbied for government funds and especially from philanthropies that enabled the institute to provide model farming techniques, advanced training, and organizational skills. These included Annual Negro Conferences, the Tuskegee Experiment Station, the Agricultural Short Course, the Farmers' Institutes, the Farmers' County Fairs, the Movable School, and numerous pamphlets and feature stories sent free to the South's black newspapers.[96]

References

  1. ^ "1956 Centennial of Booker T. Washington 3¢ Stamps". Collector's Weekly Magazine. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
  2. ^ Washington, Booker T. (1906) [1901]. Up from Slavery: An Autobiography. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. p. 1.
  3. ^ Harlan, Louis R (1972), Booker T. Washington: volume 1: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901, p. 325.
  4. ^ Washington 1906, p. 2.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b Washington 1906, p. 34.
  6. ^ Washington 1906, p. 9.
  7. ^ Washington 1906, pp. 19–21.
  8. ^ Washington 1906, p. 27.
  9. ^ Jump up to:a b Washington 1906, p. 35.
  10. ^ Burke, Dawne Raines (2015). An American Phoenix: A History of Storer College from Slavery to Desegregation, 1865–1955. Morgantown, West Virginia: Storer College Books, an imprint of West Virginia University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-1940425771.
  11. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Booker T. Washington | Tuskegee University". www.tuskegee.edu. Archived from the original on February 26, 2019. Retrieved February 25, 2019.
  12. ^ Jump up to:a b c Institute, Mailing Address: 1212 West Montgomery Road Tuskegee; Us, AL 36088 Phone: 334 727-3200 Contact. "Booker T. Washington - Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved November 1, 2024.
  13. ^ "Booker T. Washington | Tuskegee University". www.tuskegee.edu. Retrieved November 1, 2024.
  14. ^ "Civil Rights Movement In Virginia". Virginia Museum of History & Culture. Retrieved October 31, 2024.
  15. ^ Gary, Shannon (2008). "Tuskegee University". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Birmingham, AL: Alabama Humanities Foundation. Archived from the original on April 18, 2020.
  16. ^ "The Booker T. Washington Era (Part 1)". African American Odyssey. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2008..
  17. ^ Jump up to:a b c Harlan 1972.
  18. ^ "The Oaks" Archived May 16, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Tuskegee Museum, National Park Service
  19. ^ Southeastern Regional Office of the National Park Service (2018). The Oaks: Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site Cultural Landscape Report (PDF). Atlanta, GA: National Park Service. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. After Dr. Washington's death in 1915, his wife Margaret Murray Washington occupied the residence until her death in 1925.
  20. ^ Macintosh, Barry (August 1977). "George Washington Carver and the Peanut". American Heritage Magazine. 28 (5).
  21. ^ Harlan 1971.
  22. ^ Jump up to:a b "Booker T. Washington". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 2020. Archived from the original on May 10, 2020. Retrieved May 13, 2020.
  23. ^ "Booker T. Washington Monument to Be Dedicated in Malden". WVSU. Archived from the original on February 18, 2012.
  24. ^ Hamilton, Kenneth (2017). Booker T. Washington in American Memory. University of Illinois Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0252082283.
  25. ^ "Booker T. Washington and the 'Atlanta Compromise'". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Smithsonian. n.d. Archived from the original on October 7, 2020. Retrieved October 14, 2020.
  26. ^ Jump up to:a b Du Bois 1903, p. [page needed].
  27. ^ Meier 1957.
  28. ^ Jump up to:a b Harlan 1983, p. 359.
  29. ^ "Choate and Twain Plead for Tuskegee | Brilliant Audience Cheers Them and Booker Washington" Archived March 8, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, January 23, 1906.
  30. ^ Jump up to:a b Anderson 1988.
  31. ^ Washington 1901.
  32. ^ Encyclopedia.com website, Washington, Olivia Davidson (1854–1889)
  33. ^ "Inductees". Alabama Women's Hall of Fame. State of Alabama. Archived from the original on February 4, 2012. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  34. ^ Jump up to:a b Bauerlein 2004, p. 106.
  35. ^ "W.E.B. DuBois Critiques Booker T. Washington". historymatters.gmu.edu. Archived from the original on September 21, 2021. Retrieved June 21, 2021.
  36. ^ Pole 1974, p. 888.
  37. ^ Du Bois 1903, pp. 41–59.
  38. ^ Pole 1974, p. 107.
  39. ^ Crouch 2005, p. 96.
  40. ^ Sherer, Robert G. (1930). "William Burns Paterson: "Pioneer as well as Apostle of Negro Education in Alabama". The Alabama Historical Quarterly. 36 (2: summer 1974): 146–147. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
  41. ^ Du Bois 1903, p. 189.
  42. ^ Pole 1974, p. 980.
  43. ^ Walker, Clarence E. (1991), Deromanticising Black History, University of Tennessee Press, p. 32.
  44. ^ "Black Education – Washington and DuBois". www2.kenyon.edu. Archived from the original on July 23, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2022.
  45. ^ Washington 1972a, p. 68.
  46. ^ Jump up to:a b Maxell, Anne (2002), "Montrer l'Autre: Franz Boas et les sœurs Gerhard", in Bancel, Nicolas; Blanchard, Pascal; Boëtsch, Gilles; Deroo, Eric; Lemaire, Sandrine (eds.), Zoos humains. De la Vénus hottentote aux reality shows, La Découverte, pp. 331–339, in part. p. 338
  47. ^ Harlan 1971, p. 397.
  48. ^ Davies, Vanessa (2023). "Booker T. Washington's Challenge for Egyptology: African-Centered Research in the Nile Valley". Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies (Miscellanea). doi:10.5070/D60060622. S2CID 257961196. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved April 5, 2023.
  49. ^ Gardner, Booker (1975). "The Educational Contributions of Booker T. Washington". The Journal of Negro Education. 44 (4): 502–518. doi:10.2307/2966635. JSTOR 2966635.
  50. ^ Norrell 2009, pp. 273–275, 368–370.
  51. ^ Williams, Juan (Spring 2012). "Educating a Nation". Philanthropy. Archived from the original on May 11, 2012. Retrieved June 6, 2012.
  52. ^ "National Trust Names Rosenwald Schools One of America's 11 Most Endangered Historic Places". History Is in Our Hands (Press release). National Trust for Historic Preservation. June 6, 2002. Archived from the original on December 30, 2005. Retrieved March 26, 2006.
  53. ^ "The Herbert S. Ford Memorial Museum". Claiborneone. Archived from the original on May 15, 2006.
  54. ^ Charlotte D. Fitzgerald (2001). "The Story of My Life and Work: Booker T. Washington's Other Autobiography". The Black Scholar. Vol. 21, no. 4. pp. 35–40.
  55. ^ Harlan 1983, p. 290.
  56. ^ The Booker T. Washington Papers, ed. by Louis R. Harlan et al. Vol. I: The Autobiographical Writings (1972).
  57. ^ Jim Crow, PBS, archived from the original on August 25, 2017, retrieved August 24, 2017.
  58. ^ Jump up to:a b Alridge, Derrick (2021). "Booker T. Washington". In Kendi, Ibram X.; Blain, Keisha N. (eds.). Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019. New York: One World. pp. 267–270. ISBN 978-0-593-13404-7.
  59. ^ Grantham, Dewey W. (1958). "Dinner at the White House: Theodore Roosevelt, Booker T. Washington, and the South". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 17 (2): 112–130. ISSN 0040-3261. JSTOR 2621372.
  60. ^ Deborah Davis, Guest of Honor: Booker T. Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, and the White House Dinner that Shocked a Nation (Simon and Schuster, 2012).
  61. ^ Smith, Willard H. (April 1969). "William Jennings Bryan and Racism". The Journal of Negro History. 54 (2): 127–149. doi:10.2307/2716689. ISSN 0022-2992. JSTOR 2716689. Retrieved June 5, 2024 – via University of Chicago Press Journals.
  62. ^ Wickham, DeWayne (February 14, 2002). "Book fails to strip meaning of 'N' word". USA Today. Archived from the original on January 6, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
  63. ^ Miller, Nathan (1993). Theodore Roosevelt: A Life. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-688-13220-0.
  64. ^ Rubio, Philip F. (2009), Books, Univ. Press of Mississippi, ISBN 978-1-60473-031-9.
  65. ^ Kennedy, Randall (2002). "The Protean N-Word". Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word. Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-375-42172-3.
  66. ^ Jump up to:a b Booker T. Washington Papers, vol. 8, archived from the original on February 24, 2010, retrieved September 21, 2009.
  67. ^ Detroit Journal, November 14, 1905, BTW Papers, vol. 8, p. 437, n.1 (University of Illinois Press, 1979). University of Illinois Press. 1979. ISBN 978-0252007286.
  68. ^ "The Death of Booker T. Washington" (PDF). Booker T. Washington National Monument (National Park Service). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  69. ^ Dominguez, Alex (May 6, 2006). "Booker T. Washington's Death Revisited". The Washington Post. Associated Press. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on October 7, 2017. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  70. ^ Brown, Angelique (July 18, 2011). "Washington, Booker Taliaferro". Social Welfare History Project. Virginia Commonwealth University. Archived from the original on August 31, 2018. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  71. ^ Washington, Booker (1995). Up From Slavery. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-0486287386.
  72. ^ "The Exercises of Wednesday Afternoon". Retrieved February 21, 2021.[permanent dead link]
  73. ^ "Webster Hall Thronged". Rauner Special Collections Library. Archived from the original on February 28, 2021. Retrieved February 21, 2021.
  74. ^ Tucker, Phillip Thomas (2012). Father of the Tuskegee Airmen, John C. Robinson. Potomac Books. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-59797-487-5.
  75. ^ "African American Subjects on United States Postage Stamps". about.usps.com. USPS. Archived from the original on February 27, 2021. Retrieved March 27, 2020.
  76. ^ Marian Anderson christens the liberty ship Booker T. Washington, UCLA, archived from the original on June 29, 2012.
  77. ^ "Booker T. Washington Memorial Half Dollar". United States Mint. Archived from the original on July 27, 2020. Retrieved January 22, 2020.
  78. ^ "Booker T. Washington Biography". www.biographybase.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
  79. ^ "Booker T. Washington State Park Honored for Interpretation". www.tn.gov. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 21, 2021.
  80. ^ "Booker T. Washington State Park". Tennessee State Parks. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 21, 2021.
  81. ^ Hamilton, Ed, "Booker T Washington", Works, archived from the original on April 7, 2007.
  82. ^ Washington Elementary in Mesa Arizona, MPSAZ, archived from the original on May 3, 2009, retrieved May 15, 2009.
  83. ^ "About BTWI". West Virginia State University. Archived from the original on November 18, 2015. Retrieved November 5, 2015.
  84. ^ White, Davin (October 19, 2009). "Booker T. Washington monument unveiled". Charleston Gazette. Archived from the original on April 7, 2010. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
  85. ^ "Transcript Of John McCain's Concession Speech". NPR. November 5, 2008. Archived from the original on August 29, 2018. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  86. ^ Dagbovie 2010, p. 145.
  87. ^ Norrell 2003.
  88. ^ Pildes, Richard H. (2000). "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon". Constitutional Commentary. 17: 13–14. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
  89. ^ Eric Foner, Give Me Liberty! An American History (2008), p. 659.
  90. ^ C. Vann Woodward (1951). Origins of the New South, 1877–1913. LSU Press. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-8071-0019-6.
  91. ^ Jump up to:a b Bieze, Michael Scott; Gasman, Marybeth, eds. (2012). Booker T. Washington Rediscovered. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-4214-0470-7 – via Google Books.
  92. ^ Marable, Manning (1977). "Tuskegee Institute in the 1920's". Negro History Bulletin. 40 (6): 764–768. ISSN 0028-2529. JSTOR 44176406.
  93. ^ Carl S. Matthews, "Decline of Tuskegee Machine, 1915-1925-Abdication of Political-Power." South Atlantic Quarterly 75#4 (1976): 460–469 .
  94. ^ Pamela Newkirk, "Tuskegee's Talented Tenth: Reconciling a Legacy." Journal of Asian and African Studies 51.3 (2016): 328–345.
  95. ^ Morowski, Deborah (2013). "Public Perceptions, Private Agendas: Washington, Moton, and the Secondary Curriculum of Tuskegee Institute, 1910–1926". American Educational History Journal. 40 (1): 1–20. ISBN 978-1623964238 – via Google Books.
  96. ^ Jones, Allen W. (1975). "The Role of Tuskegee Institute in the Education of Black Farmers". The Journal of Negro History. 60 (2): 252–267. doi:10.2307/2717374. JSTOR 2717374. S2CID 149916547.
  97. ^ Ray Argyle (2009). Scott Joplin and the Age of Ragtime. McFarland, pp. 56ff.
  98. ^ MacDonald, J. Fred, ed. (1989). Richard Durham's Destination Freedom. New York: Praeger. p. x. ISBN 0275931382.
  99. ^ Taylor, Elise; Sporn, Stephanie (October 27, 2023). "The Real-Life Socialites and Historical Figures Who Inspired the Characters of The Gilded Age". British Vogue. Archived from the original on December 7, 2023. Retrieved November 28, 2023.
  100. ^ Washington, Booker T. The Future of the American Negro. Small, Maynard. ISBN 978-0722297490.
  101. ^ Washington, Booker T. (1901). The Story of My Life and Work: An Autobiography. ISBN 978-3849674748. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
  102. ^ Washington, Booker T. (1904). Working with the Hands: Being a Sequel to "Up from Slavery," Covering the Author's Experiences in Industrial Training at Tuskegee. Doubleday, Page. ISBN 978-0837113142.
  103. ^ "This book has been described as "laudatory (and largely ghostwritten)." Alexander, Adele, Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute, 1892: A Little-known Encounter, The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History: History Resources".
  104. ^ John Hope Franklin writes that Washington's biography of Douglass "has been attributed largely to Washington's friend, S. Laing Williams". Introduction to Three Negro Classics, New York: Avon Books (1965), p. 17. The preface to Frederick Douglass states, "S. Laing Williams, of Chicago, Ill., and his wife, Fannie Barrier Williams, have been of incalculable service in the preparation of this volume. Mr. Williams enjoyed a long and intimate acquaintance with Mr. Douglass, and I have been privileged to draw heavily upon his fund of information. He and Mrs. Williams have reviewed this manuscript since its preparation and have given it their cordial approval." Reprinted and published by Argosy-Antiquarian LTD. (1969), p. 7.
  105. ^ Washington, Booker T. (1909). The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery. Doubleday, Page & Company. ISBN 978-0837199566.
  106. ^ Washington, Booker T. (2021). My Larger Education (Esprios Classics): Being Chapters from My Experience. Blurb, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-034-75027-7.
#Activists#BookerT#History#SocialReformers#famouspeople#historicalfigure#historicalfigures
Add as a preferred source on Google